Infodoc : Sciences, Techniques et Culture

1 Creating and formulating flavours
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 A little history
1.2 Interpreting analyses
1.3 Flavour characteristics
1.3.1 Primary characters
1.3.2 Secondary characteristics
1.3.3 Taste effects
1.3.4 Complexity
1.3.5 Flavour balance
1.3.6 Unfinished work
1.4 Applications
1.4.1 Ingredient factors
1.4.2 Processing factors
1.4.3 Storage factors
1.4.4 Consumption factors
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1 Creating and formulating flavours
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 A little history
1.2 Interpreting analyses
1.3 Flavour characteristics
1.3.1 Primary characters
1.3.2 Secondary characteristics
1.3.3 Taste effects
1.3.4 Complexity
1.3.5 Flavour balance
1.3.6 Unfinished work
1.4 Applications
1.4.1 Ingredient factors
1.4.2 Processing factors
1.4.3 Storage factors
1.4.4 Consumption factors
1.5 Flavour forms
1.5.1 Water-soluble liquid flavours
1.5.2 Clear water-soluble liquid flavours
1.5.3 Oil-soluble liquid flavours
1.5.4 Emulsion-based flavours
1.5.5 Dispersed flavours
1.5.6 Spray-dried flavours
1.6 Production issues
1.7 Regulatory affairs
1.8 A typical flavour
1.9 Commercial considerations
1.9.1 International tastes
1.9.2 Abstract flavours
1.9.3 Matching
1.9.4 Customers
1.10 Summary
References
2 Flavour legislation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Methods of legislation
2.3 Legislation in the United States
2.4 International situation: JECFA
2.5 Council of Europe
2.6 European community
2.6.1 Background - national to EU legislation
2.6.2 The 1988 Council Directive
2.6.3 Smoke flavourings 2003 Directive
2.6.4 Developments 2008 onwards
2.7 Current EU Situation and the future References
3 Basic chemistry and process conditions for reaction flavours with particular Cocus on Maillard-type reactions
3.1 Introduction
3.2 General aspects of the Maillard reaction cascade
3.2.1 Intermediates as flavour precursors
3.2.2 Carbohydrate fragmentation
3.2.3 Strecker degradation
3.2.4 Interactions with lipids
3.3 Important aroma compounds derived from Maillard reaction in food and process flavours
3.3.1 Character-impact compounds of thermally treated foods
3.3.2 Character-impact compounds of process flavours
3.4 Preparation of process flavours
3.4.1 General aspects
3.4.2 Factors influencing flavour formation
3.4.3 Savoury process flavours
3.4.4 Sweet process flavours
3.5 Outlook References
4 Biotechnological flavour generation
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Natural flavours: market situation and driving forces
4.3 Advantages of biocatalysis
4.4 Micro-organisms
4.4.1 Biotransformation and bioconversion of monoterpenes
4.4.2 Bioconversion of C13-norisoprenoids and sesquiterpenes
4.4.3 Generation of oxygen heterocycles
4.4.4 Generation of vanillin, benzaldehyde and benzoic compounds
4.4.5 Generation of miscellaneous compounds
4.5 Enzyme technology
4.5.1 Liberation of volatiles from bound precursors
4.5.2 Biotransformations
4.5.3 Kinetic resolution of racemates
4.6 Plant catalysts
4.6.1 Plant cell, tissue and organ cultures
4.6.2 Callus and suspension cultures
4.6.3 Organ cultures
4.6.4 Plant cell biotransformations
4.7 Flavours through genetic engineering
4.7.1 Genetically modified micro-organisms
4.7.2 Isolated enzymes from genetically modified micro-organisms
4.7.3 Plant rDNA techniques
4.8 Advances in bioprocessing
4.8.1 Process developments in microbial and enzyme systems
4.8.2 Process developments of plant catalysts
4.9 Conclusion
References
5 Natural sources of flavours
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Properties of flavour molecules
5.2.1 Flavour perception
5.2.2 Differences in sensory character and intensity between isomers
5.2.3 Extraction of flavours from plant materials
5.2.4 Commercial aspects
5.2.5 Economic aspects
5.2.6 Safety aspects
5.3 Dairy flavours
5.3.1 Background
5.3.2 Cream and butter
5.3.3 Cheese
5.4 Fermented products
5.4.1 Hydrolysed vegetable proteins
5.4.2 Chocolate
5.4.3 Tea
5.4.4 Coffee
5.4.5 Beer
5.4.6 Wine
5.4.7 Sweeteners
5.5 Cereal products
5.6 Vegetable sources of flavour
5.6.1 Spice flavours
5.6.2 Mushroom
5.6.3 Garlic, onion and related flavours
5.6.4 Brassica flavours, including mustard and horseradish
5.6.5 'Fresh/green/grassy'
5.6.6 Nuts
5.6.7 Other vegetables
5.6.8 Fermented vegetables
5.7 Fruit
5.7.1 Apples
5.7.2 Pears
5.7.3 Grapefruit
5.7.4 Blackcurrant
5.7.5 Raspberry
5.7.6 Strawberry
5.7.7 Apricot and peach
5.7.8 Tomato
5.7.9 Cherry
5.7.10 Tropical fruit flavours
5.7.11 Vanilla
5.7.12 Other fruits
5.7.13 Citrus
5.7.14 Citrus processing
5.8 Other flavour characteristics
5.9 Fragrance uses
5.10 Conclusion References
6 Useful principles to predict the performance of polymeric flavour delivery systems
6.1 Overview
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Compatibility and cohesion
6.4 Sorption and swelling
6.5 Diffusion and release References
7 Delivery of flavours from food matrices
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Flavour properties
7.3 Thermodynamic aspects of flavour delivery
7.3.1 Definition of gas/product partition coefficients and activity coefficients
7.3.2 Types ofbinding
7.3.3 Lipid-flavour interactions
7.3.4 Carbohydrate-flavour interactions
7.3.5 Protein-flavour interactions
7.4 Kinetic aspects of flavour delivery
7.4.1 Principles of interfacial mass transfer
7.4.2 Liquid food products
7.4.3 Semi-solid food products
7.4.4 Solid food products
7.5 Delivery systems: food technology applications
7.6 Conclusions
References
8 Modelling flavour release
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Equilibrium partition models
8.2.1 The air/water partition coefficient
8.2.2 Estimation of Kaw using QSPR
8.2.3 Effect of lipid on volatile partitioning
8.2.4 QSPR estimation of the air/emulsion partition coefficient
8.2.5 Internet models and databases
8.3 Dynamic systems
8.3.1 Modelling flavour release from a retronasal aroma simulator
8.3.2 Non-equilibrium partition modelling of volatile loss from matrices
8.3.3 Modelling the gas-phase dilution of equilibrium headspace
8.3.4 Modelling the gas-phase dilution of equilibrium headspace above emulsions
8.3.5 Modelling the rate of volatile equilibration in the headspace above emulsions
8.4 ln vivo consumption
8.4.1 Modelling release from emulsions during consumption
8.4.2 Effect of gas flow on volatile equilibration above emulsions
8.4.3 Modelling volatile transfer through the upper airway
8.4.4 Non-equilibrium partition model for in vivo release
8.4.5 Modelling flavour release using time-intensity data
8.4.6 QSPR of in vivo volatile release from gels
8.5 Conclusion
References
9 Instrumental methods of analysis
9.1 Analytical challenges
9.2 Aroma isolation
9.2.1 Aroma isolation methods based on volatility
9.2.2 Aroma isolation methods using sol vent extraction
9.2.3 Solid-phase micro-extraction
9.2.4 General considerations in preparing aroma isolates
9.2.5 Aroma isolation summary
9.3 Selection of aroma isolation method
9.3.1 'Complete' aroma profile
9.3.2 Key components contributing to sensory properties
9.3.3 Off-notes in a food product
9.3.4 Monitoring aroma changes in foods
9.3.5 Using aroma compound profiles to predict sensory response
9.3.6 Summary comments on isolation methods
9.4 Aroma isolate fractionation prior to analysis
9.4.1 Fractionation of concentrates prior to analysis
9.5 Flavour analysis by gas chromatography
9.5.1 High-resolution gas chromatography
9.5.2 Gas chromatography-olfactometry
9.5.3 Specific gas chromatographic detectors
9.6 Flavour analysis by HPLC
9.7 Identification of volatile flavours
9.7.1 Gas chromatography
9.7.2 Infrared spectroscopy
9.7.3 Mass spectrometry
9.8 Electronic 'noses'
9.9 Summary References
10 On-line monitoring of flavour processes
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Issues associated with in vivo monitoring of flavour release
10.2.1 Speed of analysis
10.2.2 Analysis of different chemical classes
10.2.3 Sensitivity
10.2.4 Identification of analysed compounds
10.2.5 Interfering factors
10.2.6 Non-volatile tastants
10.3 Pioneers and development of on-line flavour analysis
10.4 On-line aroma analysis using chemical ionisation techniques
10.4.1 Analysis via atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation
10.4.2 Analysis via PTR
10.4.3 Analysis via selected ion flow tube
10.4.4 Calibration
10.4.5 Suppression
10.4.6 Assigning ions to compounds for unequivocal identification
10.4.7 Summary
10.5 Analysis of tastants using direct mass spectrometry
10.6 Applications
10.6.1 Breath-by-breath analysis
10.6.2 Flavour reformulation in reduced fat foods
10.6.3 Flavour release in viscous foods
10.6.4 Measuring aroma release in ethanolic beverages
10.6.5 Monitoring flavour generation on-line
10.6.6 Rapid headspace profiling of fruits and vegetables
10.7 Future References
11 Sensory methods of flavour analysis
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Analytical tests
11.2.1 Discrimination tests
11.2.2 Intensity rating tests
11.2.3 Time-intensity rating
11.2.4 Taste-smell interactions
11.2.5 Descriptive analysis
11.2.6 Quality control tests
11.3 Consumer tests
11.3.1 Purpose of consumer tests
11.3.2 Methods
11.4 Sensory testing administration
11.4.1 Facilities
11.4.2 Test administration
11.4.3 Experimental design
11.5 Selection and training of judges
11.5.1 Human subject consent forms and regulations
11.5.2 Judges
11.6 Statistical analysis of data
11.6.1 Analytical tests
11.6.2 Consumer tests
11.7 Relating sensory and instrumental flavour data
11.8 Summary
References
12 Brain imaging
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Cortical pathways oftaste, aroma and oral somatosensation
12.2.1 Basic brain anatomy and fonction
12.2.2 Central gustatory pathways
12.2.3 Central olfactory pathways
12.2.4 Central oral somatosensory pathways
12.2.5 Interaction and association of stimuli
12.3 Imaging of brain function
12.3.1 Methodologies to image brain function
12.3.2 Functional magnetic resonance imaging
12.3.3 fMRI design for flavour processing
12.3.4 Behavioural data and subject choice
12.3.5 Measurement limitations
12.4 Brain imaging of flavour
12.4.1 Brain imaging of taste
12.4.2 Brain imaging of aroma
12.4.3 Imaging cortical associations
12.4.4 Texture and the 'taste of fat'
12.4.5 The issue of the 'super-tasters'
12.5 Future trends