Infodoc : Sciences, Techniques et Culture

1 Enzymes in food technology
introduction
1 History
1.2 Nomenclature of enzymes
1.3 Enzymology
1.3.1 The function of enzymes in nature
1.3.2 Chemistry of enzymes
1.3.3 Specificity of enzymes
1.3.4 Mechanisms
1.3.5 The enzyme substrate complex
1.3.6 Chemical equilibrium
1.4 Enzyme kinetics
1.5 Factors affecting enzyme activity
1.5.1 Enzyme concentration
1.5.2 Substrate concentration
1.5.3[...]

1 Enzymes in food technology
introduction
1 History
1.2 Nomenclature of enzymes
1.3 Enzymology
1.3.1 The function of enzymes in nature
1.3.2 Chemistry of enzymes
1.3.3 Specificity of enzymes
1.3.4 Mechanisms
1.3.5 The enzyme substrate complex
1.3.6 Chemical equilibrium
1.4 Enzyme kinetics
1.5 Factors affecting enzyme activity
1.5.1 Enzyme concentration
1.5.2 Substrate concentration
1.5.3 Allostery
1.5.4 Cofactors
1.5.5 Coenzymes
1.5.6 Inhibitors
1.6 Industrial enzymes
1.7 Food enzymes
1.7.1 Food biotechnology
1.7.2 Food enzyme application
1.8 Genetic engineering
1.9 Enzyme allergy
1.10 Summary and conclusions
2 GMO and protein engineering
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Recombinant DNA technology
2.2.1 'Shotgun' cloning
2.2.2 Self-cloning
2.2.3 Cloning by PCR
2.2.4 Application examples
2.3 Protein engineering
2.3.1 Strategies of protein engineering
2.3.2 Gene expression systems
2.3.3 Selection and screening
2.3.4 Applications of protein engineering - a powerful tool for the development of enzymes as applied biocatalysts
2.3.5 Safety concerns
2.4 Regulations
2.4.1 Regulations on self-cloning
2.4.2 Cloning and expression of genes between Streptomyces should be considered as 'self-cloning'
2.5 Future prospects
3 Production of industrial enzymes Tim Dodge
3.1 Applications research and protein engineering
3.2 Strain development
3.2.1 Introduction
3.2.2 GMO verusus non-GMO
3.2.3 Example: construction of a Bacillus subtilis production host
3.2.4 Goals of genetic engineering
3.2.5 Food enzyme production in the 'omics' era
3.3 Microbial fermentation
3.3.1 Culture maintenance and storage
3.3.2 Seed preparation
3.3.3 Production fermentation
3.4 Downstream processing
3.4.1 Bridging the gap
3.4.2 Basic downstream process
3.4.3 Purification
3.4.4 Sustainability
3.5 Enzyme formulation
3.5.1 Solid product formulation
3.5.2 Liquid product formulation
3.5.3 Blends
3.5.4 Preservatives
3.6 Summary
4 Asparaginase - an enzyme for acrylamide reduction in food products
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Asparaginase
4.3 Acrylamide analysis
4.4 Applications
4.4.1 Application testing in cereal food products
4.4.2 Application testing in potato products
4.4.3 Application testing in coffee
5 Enzymes in dairy product manufacture
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Milk-clotting enzymes
5.2.1 The nature and identity of rennets and coagulants
5.2.2 Main characteristics of rennets and coagulants from different sources
5.2.3 Production of rennets and coagulants
5.2.4 Formulation and standardization of rennets and coagulants
5.3 Lactoperoxidase
5.4 Cheese-ripening enzymes
5.4.1 Types of enzyme available commercially
5.4.2 Enzyme addition technology
5.4.3 Enzyme-modified cheese technology
5.5 Lysozyme
5.6 Transglutaminase
5.7 Lipase
5.7.1 Lipolyzed milk fat (LMF)
5.7.2 Lipase-catalyzed intra- and intermolecular modification of milk fat
5.8 Lactase
5.8.1 Commercial dairy products of lactase technology
6 Enzymes in bread making
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Wheat
6.1.2 Wheat flour constituents
6.1.3 Starch
6.1.4 Gluten
6.1.5 Non-starch polysaccharides
6.1.6 Lipids
6.2 Enzymes in bread making
6.2.1 Amylases
6.2.2 Classification
6.2.3 Amylases in bread making
6.2.4 Other amylases
6.2.5 Anti-staling enzymes
6.3 Xylanases
6.3.1 Classification
6.3.2 Mechanism
6.3.3 Xylanases in bread making
6.4 Lipases
6.4.1 Mechanism
6.4.2 Lipases in bread making
6.5 Oxidoreductases
6.5.1 Classification
6.5.2 Oxidases in baking
6.6 Proteases
6.6.1 Classification
6.6.2 Proteases in baking
6.7 Other enzymes
6.7.1 Transglutaminase
6.7.2 Endoglycosidases
6.7.3 Cellulases
6.7.4 Mannanases
6.8 Concluding remarks
7 Enzymes in non-bread wheat-based foods
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Functionalities of enzymes in wheat-based, non-bread products
7.3 Application of enzymes in cake and muffin production
7.4 Application of enzymes in pasta and noodle production
7.4.1 Enzyme effects on pasta products
7.4.2 Enzyme effects on noodles
7.5 Application of enzymes in biscuit, cookie and cracker production
7.6 Application of enzymes in wafers
7.7 Use of enzymes in wheat flour tortilla
7.8 Application of enzymes in breakfast cereals
7.9 Miscellaneous
7.9.1 Asparaginase to reduce acrylamide content in wheat-based baked products
8 Brewing with enzymes
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Malting: the transformation of raw barley to an enzyme-rich package
8.2.1 Steeping
8.2.2 Germination
8.2.3 Kilning
8.2.4 Commercial enzymes applied during the malting processes
8.3 Brewhouse processing
8.3.1 Milling
8.3.2 Mashing
8.3.3 Biological acidification during mashing
8.3.4 Enzymes in lautering/mash filtration
8.4 Adjunct brewing
8.4.1 Brewing with raw barley as adjunct
8.4.2 Brewing with maize or rice as adjunct
8.4.3 Brewing with sorghum as adjunct
8.4.4 Other potential sources of adjunct
8.5 Enzyme applications and their role during fermentation
8.5.1 Enzymatic processes in yeast fermentation
8.5.2 Exogenous enzymes applied during fermentation
8.5.3 Low carbohydrate beer production
8.6 Beer stabilization
8.6.1 Enzymes for corrective actions (filtration and beer haze)
8.6.2 Enhanced maturation
8.7 The future of enzymes in brewing
8.8 Conclusion
9 Enzymes in potable aicohol and wine production
9.1 Enzymes for potable alcohol production
9.1.1 Starch-hydrolyzing enzymes
9.1.2 Cellulases
9.2 Enzymes in winemaking
9.2.1 Introduction
9.2.2 Grape structure and composition
9.2.3 Pectin
9.2.4 Polyphenols
9.2.5 Wine varietal aromas and their precursors in grapes
9.2.6 Legal aspects of the use of enzymes in winemaking
9.2.7 GMO transparency
9.2.8 Production of winemaking enzymes
9.2.9 Winemaking enzymes composition and formulation
10 Enzymes in fish processing
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Proteases
10.2.1 Applications of proteases
10.3 Transglutaminase (TGase)
10.3.1 Endogenous Tgase
10.3.2 Microbial transglutaminase (MTGase)
11 Enzymes in fruit and vegetable processing and juice extraction
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Fruit composition
11.2.1 Pectin
11.2.2 Hemicellulose
11.2.3 Cellulose
11.2.4 Starch
11.3 Pectin degrading enzymes
11.4 Commercial pectinases
11.4.1 Production
11.4.2 Specifications
11.4.3 Legislation
11.4.4 Genetically modified microorganisms
11.5 Enzymes for fruit processing
11.5.1 Apple processing
11.5.2 Red berry processing
11.5.3 Tropical fruit processing
11.5.4 Citrus processing
11.6 Fruit firming
11.7 Vegetable processing
11.8 New trends and conclusion
12 Enzymes in meat processing
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Meat as raw material
12.2.1 Structure of muscle
12.2.2 Chemistry and biochemistry of muscle
12.2.3 Conversion of muscle to meat
12.2.4 Factors in meat processing
12.3 Enzymes used for meat processing
12.3.1 Proteases and peptidases
12.3.2 Lipases
12.3.3 Transglutaminase
12.3.4 Oxidative enzymes
12.3.5 Glutaminase
12.4 Meat tenderization with added enzymes
12.4.1 Methods for enzyme application in meat tenderization
12.5 Enzymatic generation of flavour in meat products
12.5.1 Proteolysis and lipolysis in meat flavour development
12.5.2 Effect of enzymes on ripening of dry-cured meat products
12.6 Structure engineering by cross-linking enzymes
12.6.1 Restructuring of unheated meat
12.6.2 Processed meat systems
12.7 Other applications
12.8 Future prospects
13 Enzymes in protein modification
13.1 Introduction
13.2 The hydrolysis reaction
13.3 Controlling the hydrolysis reaction
13.4 Proteases
13.5 Properties of hydrolyzed protein
13.5.1 Taste
13.5.2 Solubility
13.5.3 Viscosity
13.5.4 Emulsification
13.5.5 Foaming
13.5.6 Gelling
13.5.7 Allergenicity
13.5.8 Bioactive peptides
13.6 Processing issues
13.6.1 Preparing the raw material
13.6.2 Hydrolysis
13.6.3 Inactivating the proteases
13.6.4 Recovery of the proteinlpeptide product
13.6.5 Concentration, formulation and drying
13.7 Protein hydrolyzates on the market
13.8 Conclusion
14 Starch-processing enzymes
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Starch and starch-active enzymes
14.3 Starch hydrolysis
14.4 Fructose production with glucose isomerase
14.5 Isomaltooligosaccharides
14.6 Amylases in baking (see also Chapter 6)
14.7 Glucanotransferases
14.8 Cyclodextrins
14.9 Thermoreversible gelling starch
14.10 Branched dextrins
14.11 Conclusions
15 Lipases for the production of food components
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Enzyme biochemistry
15.3 Interesterification
15.4 Hydrogenation and chemical interesterification
15.5 Enzymatic interesterification
15.5.1 Oil quality specifications
15.5.2 Improving oil quality
15.5.3 Practical operation of EIE
15.5.4 Future directions for EIE
15.6 Enzymatic degumming
15.6.1 Phospholipid structure and phospholipases
15.6.2 Mechanism of enzymatic degumming
15.6.3 Industrial experience with enzymatic degumming
15.6.4 Process developments in enzymatic degumming
15.6.5 Future developments in enzymatic degumming
15.7 Ester synthesis
15.8 Speciality fats
15.9 Environmental benefits of enzymatic processing
15.10 Future developments in lipase applications
15.10.1 Biodiesel
15.10.2 Alternative immobilization systems
15.10.3 Alternative reaction systems