1 Fatty acids: structure, occurrence, nomenclature, biosynthesis and properties
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Fatty acid nomenclature
1.2.1 Saturated acids
1.2.2 Monounsaturated acids
1.2.3 Diunsaturated acids
1.2.4 Triunsaturated acids
1.3 Occurrence
1.4 Fatty acid biosynthesis
1.4.1 Saturated fatty acids
1.4.2 Monoenoic fatty acids
1.4.3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids
1.5 Properties of trans fatty acids
1.5.1 M[...]
1 Fatty acids: structure, occurrence, nomenclature, biosynthesis and properties
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Fatty acid nomenclature
1.2.1 Saturated acids
1.2.2 Monounsaturated acids
1.2.3 Diunsaturated acids
1.2.4 Triunsaturated acids
1.3 Occurrence
1.4 Fatty acid biosynthesis
1.4.1 Saturated fatty acids
1.4.2 Monoenoic fatty acids
1.4.3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids
1.5 Properties of trans fatty acids
1.5.1 Melting points
1.5.2 Ultraviolet spectra
1.5.3 Infrared spectra
1.5.4 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
1.6 Labelling and legislation
2 Trans fatty acids intake: epidemiology and health implications
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Food sources of trans fatty acids
2.3 Trans fatty acids intake
2.4 Trans fatty acids in human milk
2.5 Trans fatty acids intake and health implications
2.5.1 Coronary heart disease
2.5.2 Diabetes
2.5.3 Cancer
2.6 Concluding remarks
3 Conjugated linoleic acid effects on body composition and clinical biomarkers of disease in animals and man: metabolic and cell mechanisms
3.1 General introduction: conjugated linoleic acids and health
3.2 Structure, dietary origins and consumption of CLAs in man
3.2.1 Structure
3.2.2 Origins of CLAs in the human diet
3.2.3 Dietary consumption of CLAs in man
3.3 CLAs in cancer prevention and treatment
3.3.1 Epidemiology of dietary fats and cancer risk
3.3.2 CLAs and breast cancer
3.3.3 CLAs and prostate cancer
3.3.4 CLAs in gastrointestinal cancer
3.3.5 CLAs and other cancers (hepatic, pancreatic and dermal)
3.4 Cellular mechanisms of CLAs' anti-cancer effects
3.4.1 Inhibition of angiogenesis
3.4.2 Attenuation of cancer metastasis
3.4.3 Reduction of cancer cachexia
3.5 Effect of CLAs on body composition and energy metabolism in animals and men
3.5.1 Body composition in animals
3.5.2 Body composition in man
3.5.3 Possible mechanisms underlying reported changes in body composition
3.5.4 Efficacy of different CLA isomers in regulating body composition
3.6 Other reported health benefits of CLAs
3.6.1 Effects on insulin resistance and diabetes
3.6.2 Modulation of immune functions
3.6.3 Effects of CLAs on biomarkers of cardiovascular disease
3.7 Reported adverse health effects of CLAs in vivo and in vitro
3.8 Conclusions
4 Analysis of trans mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Isomeric fatty acids in the human diet
4.3 Gas chromatography and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
4.4 Direct GC analysis
4.4.1 Analysis of monounsaturated isomers
4.4.2 Isomers of linoleic and a-linolenic acids
4.4.3 Resolution of eicosenoic and a-linolenic acid isomers
4.4.4 Effect of the type of carrier gas and flow rate on cis and trans isomer resolution and fatty acid quantification
4.4.5 Conjugated fatty acids
4.5 Silver nitrate thin-Iayer and high-performance liquid chromatography separation of cis and trans isomers
4.5.1 Monounsaturated fatty acid isomers
4.5.2 Conjugated fatty acids
4.6 Utilisation of pre-fractionation steps prior to chromatographic analysis: the case of dairy fats
4.7 Conclusion
5 Controlling physical and chemical properties of fat blends through their triglyceride compositions
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Defining triglyceride compositions
5.3 Melting points and sfc
5.4 The effect of oil processing on triglyceride groups
5.4.1 Hydrogenation
5.4.2 Fractionation
5.4.3 Interesterification
5.4.4 Other oil treatments
5.5 Using triglyceride groups in product development
6 Trans isomer control in hydrogenation of edible oils
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Hydrogenation process
6.1.2 History of hydrogenation
6.1.3 Reasons for hydrogenation
6.2 Isomerisation
6.2.1 Geometric and positional isomerisation
6.2.2 Controlling isomerisation
6.3 Reaction mechanism
6.3.1 'Half-hydrogenated' intermediate
6.3.2 Saturation, positional and geometric isomerisation
6.4 Industrial hydrogenation
6.4.1 Batch process
6.4.2 Reactor types and features
6.4.3 Reaction parameters
6.4.4 Influence of feedstock on trans
6.4.5 Influence of reaction conditions on trans
6.4.6 Influence of catalyst on trans
6.4.7 Influence of reactor design on trans
6.4.8 Trans isomer control
6.5 New developments in low trans hydrogenation
6.5.1 Alternative reaction conditions
6.5.2 Alternative hydrogenation processes
6.5.3 Hydrogenation additives
6.5.4 Alternate catalysts
6.6 Summary
7 Fractionation and interesterification
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Fractionation
7.2.1 Historical
7.2.2 Fat crystallisation theory
7.2.3 Fat crystallisation practice
7.2.4 Separation processes
7.2.5 Fractionation products
7.3 Interesterification
7.3.1 Historical
7.3.2 Interesterification mechanism
7.3.3 Interesterification practice
7.3.4 Interesterification products
8 Food applications of trans fatty acids
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Margarine
8.2.1 Table margarine
8.2.2 Cake margarine
8.2.3 Pastry margarine
8.3 Biscuit fats
8.3.1 Dough fats - short dough biscuits
8.3.2 Dough fat -laminated biscuits
8.3.3 Cream filling fat
8.4 Fats for chocolate confectionery
8.5 Fats for sugar confectionery
8.6 Vanaspati
8.7 Synthetic creams
8.7.1 Whipped toppings
8.7.2 Coffee whiteners
8.8 Concluding remarks
9 Food products without trans fatty acids
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Fat phase
9.3 Margarine and related products
9.4 Manufacturing process
9.5 Optimal processing conditions
9.6 Final remarks
Index
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