Infodoc : Sciences, Techniques et Culture

PART 1: Food Powders Characterization
1. Sampling
1.1 Theory and Statistical Aspects
1.1.1 Introduction: Importance of Sampling
1.1.2 Sampling Variation Sources
1.1.3 Minimum Sample Size
1.1.4 Standard Sampling Deviation
1.2 Sampling Techniques and Procedures
1.3 Samplers and Sample Dividers
1.4 Sample Dispersion
References
2. Particle Properties
2.1 Particle Size and Shape
2.1.1 Introductory Definit[...]

PART 1: Food Powders Characterization
1. Sampling
1.1 Theory and Statistical Aspects
1.1.1 Introduction: Importance of Sampling
1.1.2 Sampling Variation Sources
1.1.3 Minimum Sample Size
1.1.4 Standard Sampling Deviation
1.2 Sampling Techniques and Procedures
1.3 Samplers and Sample Dividers
1.4 Sample Dispersion
References
2. Particle Properties
2.1 Particle Size and Shape
2.1.1 Introductory Definitions
2.1.2 Selection of Relevant Characteristic Particle Size
2.1.3 Shape of Particle Related to Sphericity
2.1.4 Evaluation of Shape Outline
2.2 Particle Density
2.2.1 Density Expressions
2.2.2 Liquid Pycnometry
2.2.3 Air Pycnometry
2.2.4 Aerodynamic Particle Density
2.3 Particle Size Distribution
2.3.1 Relevance of Particle Size Distribution
2.3.2 Types of Particle Size Distribution
2.3.3 Particle Size Distribution Tendencies
2.3.4 Presentation of Data
2.3.5 Size Distribution Functions
2.3.6 Analytical Techniques for Size Measurement
2.3.6.1 Sieving
2.3.6.2 Microscopy Techniques
2.3.6.3 Sedimentation
2.3.6.4 Stream Scanning
2.3.6.5 On-line Measurement Techniques
2.4 Other Primary Properties
2.4.1 Surface Area
2.4.1.1 Permeametry
2.4.1.2 Gas Adsorption
2.4.2 Moisture
References
3. Bulk Properties
3.1 Flow Properties
3.1.1 Introduction
3.1.2 Failure Properties
3.1.2.1 Definitions
3.1.2.2 Determinations Using Shear Cells
3.1.2.3 Direct Measurement of Failure Properties
3.1.3 Other Handling Properties
3.1.3.1 Angle of Repose
3.1.3.2 Angle of Slide
3.1.3.3 Conveying Angle
3.1.3.4 Angle of Spatula
3.2 Classification of Powders According to Handling
3.3 Packing Properties
3.3.1 Bulk Density and Porosity
3.3.1.1 Measurements of Bulk Density
3.3.1.2 Hausner Ratio
3.3.1.3 Factors Affecting Bulk Density
3.3.2 Compressibility
3.4 Strength Properties
3.4.1 Abrasion
3.4.2 Friability
3.5 Reconstitution Properties
3.5.1 Instantizing Processes
3.5.2 Instant Properties
3.5.3 Instant Property Evaluation
3.5.3.1 Penetration Speed Test
3.5.3.2 A Dynamic Wetting Test
3.5.3.3 Dispersibility Measuring Test
3.5.3.4 IDF Standard Method
References
PART II: Production, Handling, and Processing
4. Storage
4.1 Alternatives for Storage of Bulk Solids
4.1.1 Outdoors and Structured Storage
4.1.2 Storage in Containers
4.2 Principles Involved in Storage Bin Design
4.2.1 Basic Concepts of Bulk Solids Plant
4.2.1.1 Ratholes
4.2.1.2 Arching
4.2.1.3 Erratic Flow
4.2.1.4 Segregation and Flooding
4.2.2 Elements of Bulk Solids Gravity Flow
4.3 Flow Patterns in Storage Bins
4.3.1 Mass-Flow
4.3.2 Funnel-Flow
4.3.3 Expanded Flow
4.3.4 Symmetrical and Non-symmetrical Flow
4.4 Wall Stresses in Axi-Symmetrical Bins
4.4.1 Distribution of Bin Wall Loads
4.4.2 Calculation of Loads in Bins
4.5 Natural Discharge from Bins
4.5.1 Hopper Opening for Coarse Bulk Solids
4.5.1.1 Mass-Flow Rate Calculation
4.5.2 Hopper Opening for Fine Bulk Solids
4.5.3 Velocity Distribution in the Hopper
4.5.4 Factors Influencing Bin Geometry for Mass-Flow
4.5.5 Effect of the Gas Phase
4.6 Assisted Discharge
4.6.1 Passive Devices
4.6.2 Active Devices
4.6.3 Use of Feeders to Control Discharge
4.6.3.1 Volumetric Feeders
4.6.3.2 Gravimetric Feeders
4.6.3.3 Loads on a Hopper Feeder
References
5.Conveying
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Belt Conveyors
5.2.1 Components
5.2.2 Design Aspects
5.2.3 Applications
5.3 Chain Conveyors
5.3.1 Scraper Conveyors
5.3.2 Apron Conveyors
5.3.3 Bucket Elevators
5.4 Screw Conveyors
5.4.1 Main Features
5.4.2 Operating Characteristics
5.4.3 Capacity and Power
5.4.4 Main Applications
5.5 Pneumatic Conveying
5.5.1 Introduction
5.5.2 Theoretical Aspects
5.5.3 Classification of Conveying Systems
5.5.4 Dense-Phase Conveyors
5.5.4.1 Plug-Phase Conveyors
5.5.4.2 Fluidized Systems
5.5.4.3 Blow Tanks
5.5.4.4 Long Distance Systems
5.5.5 Dilute-Phase Conveyors
5.5.5.1 Types of Conveyors
5.5.5.2 Operating Features
5.5.5.3 System Components
5.5.5.4 Selection and Design
5.5.6 Applications
References
6. Size Reduction
6.1 Principles of Size Reduction
6.1.1 Introductory Aspects
6.1.2 Forces Used in Size Reduction
6.1.3 Mechanical Resistance Involved in Size Reduction
6.1.4 Properties of Comminuted Products
6.2 Energy Requirements: Comminution Laws
6.2.1 Rittinger's Law
6.2.2 Kick's Law
6.2.3 Bond's Law and Work Index
6.3 Size Reduction Equipment
6.3.1 Classification
6.3.2 Features
6.3.2.1 Crushing Rolls
6.3.2.2 Hammer Mills
6.3.2.3 Disc Attrition Mills
6.3.2.4 Tumbling Mills
6.3.3 Operation
6.4 Criteria for Selection of Comminution Processes
6.4.1 General Considerations
6.4.2 Hardness and Abrasiveness
6.4.3 Mechanical Structure
6.4.4 Moisture
6.4.5 Temperature Sensitivity
6.5 Applications
References
Size Enlargement
7.1 Introduction: Size Enlargement Processes
7.2 Aggregation Fundamentals
7.2.1 Mechanisms of particle Bonding
7.2.1.1 Solid Bridges
7.2.1.2 Immobile or Freely Movable Liquid Bridges
7.2.1.3 Attraction Forces Between Solid particles
7.2.1.4 Form-Closed Bonds or Interlocking Bonds
7.2.2 Strength of Agglomerates
7.3 Agglomeration Methods
7.3.1 Tumbling of Powders (Rewetting Agglomeration)
7.3.2 Pressure Agglomeration
7.3.3 Specific Agglomeration Methods
7.3.3.1 Straight-Through Agglomeration
7.3.3.2 Spray-Bed Dryer Agglomeration
7.3.3.3 Atomizer Wheel
7.3.3.4 Freeze-Drying
7.3.4 Binders
7.4 Selection Criteria for Agglomeration Methods
7.4.1 Feed Characteristics
7.4.2 Agglomerated Powder Properties
7.4.3 Alternative Methods
7.5 Design Aspects of Agglomeration Processes
7.6 Applications of Agglomeration
References
8. EncapsuIation Processes
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Microcapsules
8.2.1 Coating Material for Encapsulation
8.2.2 Types of Encapsulated Food Ingredients
8.2.3 Microcapsules: Their Structure and Release Mechanisms
8.3 Spray Drying
8.4 Extrusion
8.5 Molecular Inclusion in Cyclodextrins
8.6 Coacervation
8.7 Centrifugal Extrusion
8.8 Air Suspension Coating
8.9 Spray Chilling and Spray Cooling
8.10 Centrifugal Suspension-Separation
8.11 Freeze-Drying
8.12 Co-Crystallization
8.13 Final Remarks
References
9. Mixing
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Mixing Mechanisms
9.2.1 Convective, Diffusive, and Shear Mixing
9.2.2 Segregation
9.2.3 Other Classifications for Mixing Mechanisms
9.2.4 Horizontal Drum Blender Mechanism
9.3 Statistical Approach of Solids Mixing
9.3.1 Types of Mixtures
9.3.2 Sampling
9.3.3 Mixture Quality: Mixing Index and Rate
9.4 Powder Mixers
9.4.1 Tumbler Mixers
9.4.2 Horizontal and Vertical Trough Mixers
9.4.3 Vertical Screw Mixers
9.4.4 Fluidized Bed Mixers
9.4.5 Hopper Blenders
9.4.6 Continuous Blenders
9.5 Selection and Design Criteria
9.5.1 Factors Affecting Equipment Design
9.5.2 Mixer Selection Based on Flow Properties
9.5.3 Mixing in Food Powdered Product Development
9.5.4 Selection Based on Mixing Costs
9.6 Applications
References
10. Separation and Classification
10.1 Introduction to Dry Separation Techniques
10.2 Screening
10.2.1 Screening Fundamentals
10.2.2 Mass Balances in Screening
10.2.3 Operating Features
10.2.3.1 Capacity and Efficiency
10.2.3.2 Factors Affecting Efficiency
10.2.4 Equipment Used for Screening
10.2.5 Selection and Design
10.2.6 Applications
10.3 Dedusting Technology
10.3.1 Cyclone Separation
10.3.1.1 Theoretical Aspects
10.3.1.2 Dimensionless Approach
10.3.1.3 Operating Features and Selection Criteria
10.3.1.4 Applications
10.3.2 Gas Filtration
10.3.2.1 Filtering Fundamentals
10.3.2.2 Operation Characteristics
10.3.2.3 Applications
10.3.3 Other Gas-Solids Separation Techniques
10.3.3.1 Scrubbers
10.3.3.2 Electrostatic Precipitators
10.4 Air Classification
10.4.1 Introduction
10.4.2 Operating Principles
10.4.3 Efficiency and Cut Size
10.4.4 Applications
References
11. Drying
11.1 Spray Drying
11.1.1 Drying Process Layouts
11.1.2 Atomization Classification
11.1.2.1 Atomizers Using Centrifugal Energy
11.1.2.2 Atornizers Using Pressure Energy
11.1.2.3 Atomizers Using Kinetic Energy
11.1.2.4 Atomizers Using Acoustic/Pulsation Energy
11.1.3 Spray-Air Movement
11.1.4 Mass and Heat Balances
11.2 Freeze-Drying
11.2.1 Freeze-Drying Process
11.2.2 Fundamentals of Freeze-Drying
11.2.2.1 Freezing
11.2.2.2 Ice Sublimation
11.2.2.3 Water Vapor Condensation
11.2.3 Drying Equipment
11.2.3.1 Batch Freeze Dryer
11.2.3.2 Continuous Freeze Dryer
11.2.3.3 Microwave-Heating Freeze Dryer
11.2.3.4 Modified Freeze Dryers
11.3 Drum Drying
11.3.1 Drum Drying Process
11.3.2 Mass and Heat Transfer
11.3.3 Types of Drum Dryers
11.3.3.1 Single-Drum Dryer
11.3.3.2 Double-Drum Dryer
11.3.3.3 Twin-Drum Dryer
11.4 Final Remarks
References
12. Undesirable Phenomena and Their Relation to Processing
12.1 Attrition
12.1.1 Attrition Mechanisms
12.1.2 Attrition Tests
12.1.2.1 Single-Particle Tests
12.1.2.2 Multiple Particle Tests
12.1.3 Attrition Theory and Modeling
12.1.3.1 Particle Behavior Under Confined Uniaxial Compression
12.1.3.2 Particle Size Distribution Variation
12.1.3.3 Attrition Kinetics
12.1.3.4 Compaction Characteristics
12.1.3.5 Fractal Approach
12.1.4 Attrition Prevention
12.2 Segregation
12.2.1 Segregation Applications
12.2.2 Segregation Mechanisms
12.2.3 Segregation Evaluation
12.2.4 4 Segregation Kinetics
12.2.5 Segregation Minimization
12.3 Caking
12.3.1 Caking Mechanisms
12.3.2 Caking Evaluation by the Glass Transition Temperature
12.3.3 Caking Kinetics
12.3.4 Food Powders Affected by Caking
12.3.4.1 Carbohydrates
12.3.4.2 Milk Powders
12.3.4.3 Protein-Based Powders
12.3.5 Caking Prevention
12.3.6 Laboratory Techniques and Test Procedures
12.4 Detonation and Dust Explosion
12.4.1 Explosion Mechanisms
12.4.2 Factors Affecting Dust Explosions
12.4.3 Explosion Hazard Evaluation
12.4.3.1 Minimum Explosive Concentration (MEC)
12.4.3.2 Minimum Hazardous Mass (MHM)
12.4.3.3 Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE)
12.4.3.4 Minimum Ignition Temperature (MIT) and Maximum Oxygen Combustion (MOC)
12.4.4 Explosibility Classification
12.4.5 Dust Explosion Prevention
Attrition References
Segregation References
Caking References
Dust Explosion References
Index