Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 Background Basics
Units, Dimensions, Conversions, Common Terms, Definitions
Main Systems of Units
Basic Dimensions and Their Units
Selected Derived Dimensions and Their Units
Conversion of Units
Dimensional Equation
Concentration
Gases and Vapors
Mass Balance
Law of Conservation of Mass
Making a Mass Balance
Total Mass Balance
Component Balance
Pearsons S[...]
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 Background Basics
Units, Dimensions, Conversions, Common Terms, Definitions
Main Systems of Units
Basic Dimensions and Their Units
Selected Derived Dimensions and Their Units
Conversion of Units
Dimensional Equation
Concentration
Gases and Vapors
Mass Balance
Law of Conservation of Mass
Making a Mass Balance
Total Mass Balance
Component Balance
Pearsons Square Rule
Pearsons Rule Calculations
Summary Notes for Mass Balance
Energy Balance
Sensible Heat
Phase Change
Heat Transfer Fundamentals
Radiation
Conduction
Steady-State Conduction
Convection
Steady-State Convection
Natural Convection
Forced Convection
Boiling Heat Transfer
Condensation Heat Transfer
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Unsteady-State Conduction
Combined Unsteady-State Conduction and Convection
Fluid Flow
Fluid Flow Regimes
Moving Fluids
Static Liquids
Turbulent Moving Liquids
Velocity Distribution Measurement
Rheological Properties
Time-Independent Flow (Steady State)
Effect of Temperature
Effect of Concentration
Time-Dependent Flow
Viscoelastic Flow
Thermophysical Properties
Heat Capacity
Mixing Methods
Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC)
Thermal Conductivity
Steady-State Techniques
Transient Techniques
Thermal Diffusivity
Calculation Method
Density
Seed Replacement Method
Pycnometry
Geometry Cutting Method
Modeling of Thermophysical Properties
Chapter 3 Thermal Processing
Introduction
Ristorical Perspectives
Classification of Thermal Processes
Cooking
Blanching
Pasteurization
Sterilization
Evaporation
Extrusion Cooking
Infrared, Microwave, Radio Frequency, and Ohmic Heating
Dehydration or Drying
Principles of Thermal Processing
Thermal Resistance of Microorganisms
Survivor Curves
Thermal Death Time (TDT)
Temperature Dependence of Kinetic Parameters
Reaction Rate Constant (k) and Activation Energy (Ea)
Lethality Concept
Characterization of Heat Penetration Data
Heat Penetration Parameters
The Retort Come-Up Time (CUT)
Thermal Process Calculations
General Method
Improved General Method
BalI Formula Method
Come-Up Time Correction and BalI Process Time
Stumbo Formula Method
Pham's Formula Method
Thermal Process Calculations for Pasteurization
Microflora in Canned Fruits
Process Calculations
Formula Methods
Commercial Canning Operations
Raw Material Selection
Washing
Sorting/Grading
Blanching
Prevention of Fruit Browning
PeelingIPreparation
Mechanical Peeling
Lye Peeling
Filling
Type of Covering Liquid
Container Specifications and Types
Container Sizes
Can Lacquer
Exhausting
Can Double Seaming/Closing
Container Coding
Retort Operations
Cooling
Labeling and Storage
Thermal Process Equipment
Retort and Retort Operations
Retort Type
Typical Operation
Heating Medium
Overpressure Processing
Example Calculation for Achieving Proper Steam/Air Mixture
Example Calculation of Heat Transfer from Steam/Air Mixture
Commercial Retorts
Batch Retorts
Steam Retort
Steam/ Air Retort
Water Spray Retort
Full Water Immersion
Crateless Retort
Agitating Retorts
Continuous Retorts
Hydrostatic Sterilizer
Continuous Turbo Cookers
Pallet Sterilizer
Steriflamme Process
Flash-18 Process
Retort Checks - Process Indicators
Quality Improvement in Thermally Processed Foods
Description of Quality
Microbiological Activity
Enzyme Activity
Nutritional and Organoleptic Quality
Effect of Thermal Processing on Food Quality
Blanching
Pasteurization
Sterilization
Kinetics of Quality Degradation
Quality Optimization
High-Temperature, Short-Time Concept
Agitation Processing
Thin Profile Processing
Aseptic Processing
Novel Thermal Processing Techniques
Ohmic Heating
Microwave Heating
Radio-Frequency Heating
Minimal Processing
Sous Vide Technology
High-Pressure Processing
Pulsed Electric Fields (PEF)
Chapter 4 Low- Temperature Preservation
Introduction
Refrigerated Storage
Plant Foods
Respiration
Transpiration
Animal Tissue
Rigor Mortis
Post-Mortem Changes in Meat Tissue
Cooling/Precooling
Cooling Techniques
Refrigerated Storage
Temperature
Relative Humidity
Atmospheric Concentration
Structural Aspects
Common Storage Systems
Ventilated Storage
Refrigerated (Regular Atmosphere, RA) Storage
Control Atmosphere (CA) Storage Systems
Storage Needs
Refrigeration Requirements
Modified Atmosphere Packaging
Food Freezing
Thermophysical Properties of Food Undergoing Freezing
Freezing Point
Density
Heat Capacity
Latent Heat
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal Diffusivity
Comparison between the Freezing and Thawing Processes
The Freezing Process
Nature of the Crystallization Process
Nucleation
Super-Cooling
Crystal Growth
Crystal Size
Size of Ice Crystals and Texture
Freezing Time and Rate
Freezing Time
Freezing Rate
Estimation of Freezing Time/Rate
Freezing Time Models
Plank's Model
International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR) Modification
Thawing Time Predictions
An Important Aspect of Plank's Equation
Freezing Methods
Air Freezing
Plate Freezing
Liquid-Immersion Freezing
Cryogenic Freezing
Commercial Freezing Equipment
Cabinet Freezer
Tunnel Freezer
Tray Tunnel Freezer
Drag- Through Tunnel Freezer
Multipass Tunnel Freezer
Contact Belt Tunnel Freezer
Flighted Tunnel Freezer
Spiral Freezer
Roto-Chiller/Tumbler
Product Surface Freezer
Fluidized Bed Freezer
Plate Freezers
Liquid Nitrogen Immersion Tunnel Freezer
Quality and Stability of Frozen Foods
Defects
Common Storage Temperatures
Storage Quality Evaluation
Prediction of Storage Life of Frozen Foods
Chapter 5 Food Dehydration
Introduction
Concept of Water Activity
Dehydration Fundamentals
Drying Curve
Equilibrium Moisture Content (Me)
Classification of Food Solids
Sorption Isotherms
Bound and Free Moisture
End Point of Drying Process
Mass and Energy Balance in Air Drying
Air-Moisture Relationships
Humidity
Dry and Wet Bulb Temperatures
Dew Point Temperature
Specific Volume and Humid Volumes
Psychrometric Charts
Effect of Air Temperature, Velocity, and Humidity on Drying
Effect of Product Characteristics on Drying
Dryer Selection
Common Drying Systems
Sun, Solar Drying, Solar Collector-Assisted Dryer, Solar-Air Hybrid Systems
Atmospheric Hot Air Dryers
Kiln, Cabinet, or Tray Dryer
Tunnel Dryer
Conveyor, Belt, or Band Dryer
Pneumatic Conveyor Dryers
Rotary Dryer
Spray Dryer
Fluidized Bed Dryer
Contact Dryers
Drum/Roller Dryers
Contact-Sorption Drying
Jet-Spouted Bed Dryers
Vacuum Dryer
Freeze Dryer
Foam Drying
Explosion Puffing
Novel Drying Techniques
Microwave Drying
Radiofrequency Drying
Infrared Drying
Refractance Drying
Acoustic Drying
Energy Aspects and Thermal Efficiency
Thermal Efficiency
Reduction of the Evaporation Load
Optimization of the Temperature and Moisture Content at the Inlet and Outlet
Reduction or the Partial Recovery of Heat Losses from the Exhaust or Dryer Surface
Supply of Heat to the Dryer by Other Means Instead of Heated Air
Quality and Storage Stability of Dehydrated Foods
Changes Taking Place during Drying
Moisture Migration and Stability Isotherms
Trends
Chapter 6 Separation and Concentration
Introduction
Evaporation
General Principles and Applications
Evaporation Systems
Liquid Characteristics
Design Calculation of Evaporators
Membrane Processing
General Principles and Applications
Dead-End vs. Cross-Flow Filtration
Classification of Membrane Systems (MS)
Reverse Osmosis
Nanofiltration
Ultrafiltration
Microfiltration
Electrodialysis
Pervaporation
Membrane Materials
Cellulose Acetate
Polymeric Membrane
Composite or Inorganic Membrane
lon-Exchange Membrane
Membrane Configurations
Plate-and-Frame
Tubular
Spiral Wound
Hollow Fibers
Membrane Performance
Effect of Operating Parameters on Flux
Transmembrane Pressure
Flow Rate
Nature and Concentration of the Feed
Temperature
Modes of Operation
Limitations of Membrane Processes and Solutions
Freeze Concentration
General Principles and Applications
Ice Crystal Nucleation and Growth
Separation Techniques
Typical Industrial Process
Multiple-Stage Systems
Physical Characteristics
Extraction
Liquid-Liquid Extraction
Solid-Liquid Extraction
Solid Extraction by Expression
Solid Extraction by Solvent
Supercritical Fluid Extraction
Osmotic Dehydration (OD)
General Principles and Advantages
Factors Influencing Osmotic Dehydration
Nature, Size, and Shape of the Biological Material
Nature, Type, and Concentration of the Osmotic Agent
Process Parameters (Temperature, Time, Agitation, Pretreatment)
Typical Industrial Processes
Future Trends
Appendix A: Conversion Factors
Mathematical Review - Logarithm
Logarithmic Notation
Properties of Logarithms
Operations on Logarithms
Calculating the Slope of a Line
Appendix B: Thermophysical Properties
Appendix C: Heat and Mass Transfer Charts
References Cited
Additional Reading MateriaI
Index
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