1 Essential Oils and Their Characteristics
M.C.T. Duarte, R.M.T. Duarte, R.A.F. Rodrigues and M.V.N. Rodrigues
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Chemical Characteristics of Essential Oils
1.1.2 Factors Influencing the Quantity and Quality of Essential Oil in Plants
1.1.3 Pathogens Attack
1.1.4 Environmental Factors
1.1.5 Hydric Stress
1.1.6 Plant Nutrition
1.1.7 Genetic Factors and Chemical Diversity
1.2 Conclusions
2 Extract[...]
1 Essential Oils and Their Characteristics
M.C.T. Duarte, R.M.T. Duarte, R.A.F. Rodrigues and M.V.N. Rodrigues
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Chemical Characteristics of Essential Oils
1.1.2 Factors Influencing the Quantity and Quality of Essential Oil in Plants
1.1.3 Pathogens Attack
1.1.4 Environmental Factors
1.1.5 Hydric Stress
1.1.6 Plant Nutrition
1.1.7 Genetic Factors and Chemical Diversity
1.2 Conclusions
2 Extraction Methods of Essential Oils From Herbs and Spices 21
Shahin Roohinejad, Mohamed Koubaa, Francisco J. Barba, Sze Ying Leong, Anissa Khelfa, Ralf Greiner and Farid Chemat
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Conventional Methods of Extraction
2.2.1 Hydrodistillation
2.2.2 Steam Distillation
2.2.3 Solvent Extraction
2.3 Novel Extraction Methods
2.3.1 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
2.3.2 Ultrasound‐Assisted Extraction
2.3.2.1 Ultrasound‐Assisted Solvent Extraction
2.3.2.2 Combination of UAE with Other Techniques
2.3.3 Ohmic‐Assisted Hydrodistillation
2.3.4 Pulsed Electrical‐Assisted Extraction
2.3.5 Microwave‐Assisted Extraction
2.3.5.1 Vacuum Microwave Hydrodistillation (VWHD)
2.3.5.2 Microwave Hydrodiffusion and Gravity (MHG)
2.3.5.3 Solvent‐Free Microwave Extraction (SFME)
2.4 Conclusions
3 Identification of Essential Oil Components
Elena E. Stashenko and Jairo Rene Martinez
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Essential Oils as Multicomponent Complex Mixtures
3.2.1 Classification and Main Components
3.2.2 Compositional Variation and Dependence on Internal and External Factors
3.2.3 Essential Oil Isolation and Preparation for Chromatographic Analysis
3.3 Essential Oil Component Identification
3.3.1 Gas Chromatography
3.3.1.1 Columns
3.3.1.2 Injection Systems
3.3.1.3 Detection Systems
3.3.2 Retention Indices
3.3.3 Mass Spectrometry
3.3.3.1 Ionisation Processes
3.3.3.2 Ion Types and Fragmentation Patterns
3.3.3.3 Mass Spectra Interpretation
3.3.4 Hyphenated Techniques
3.4 GC‐MS
3.4.1 Tandem Methods
3.4.2 Multidimensional and Comprehensive Techniques
3.5 Isolation of Individual Components or Enriched Fractions
3.6 Conclusions
4 Chemical Composition of Essential Oils
Hassan Eslahi, Nafiseh Fahimi and Ali Reza Sardarian
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Chemical Composition of Essential Oils
4.2.1 Terpenes and Terpenoids
4.2.2 Aromatic Compounds
4.3 Synthesis and Biosynthesis of Essential Oils
4.3.1 Terpenes and Terpenoids
4.3.2 Sesquiterpenes and Sesquiterpenoids
4.3.3 Aromatic Compounds
4.4 Effective Factors on the Composition of Essential Oils
5 Basic Structure, Nomenclature, Classification and Properties of Organic Compounds of Essential Oil 173
Iuliana Vintilă
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Antioxidant Properties
5.1.1.1 DPPH Assay
5.1.1.2 The Bleaching Assay
5.1.2 Anti‐Microbial and Anti‐Viral Activity
5.1.3 Anti‐Aflatoxigenic Activity
5.1.4 Anti‐Inflammatory, Analgesic, Antipyretic, Pro‐Kinetic and Pro‐Immunity Activity (Pharmacologic Properties)
5.1.5 Anti‐Carcinogenic and Cytotoxicity Activity
5.2 Final
6 Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oil
Saeedeh Shojaee‐Aliabadi, Seyede Marzieh Hosseini and Liela Mirmoghtadaie
6.1 Chemical Composition of Essential Oils
6.1.1 Terpene Origin Compounds
6.1.2 Aromatic Compounds
6.2 Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils
6.3 Synergistic and Antagonism Effect of Essential Oils with Other Antimicrobials
6.4 Interaction Between Essential Oils and Essential Oils with Other Food Antimicrobials
6.5 Food Packaging Containing Essential Oils
6.5.1 Antimicrobial Activity of Packaging Containing Essential Oils
6.5.1.1 Biopolymers
6.5.1.2 Synthetic Polymers
6.5.2 Antimicrobial Activity of Packaging in Vapor Phase
6.5.3 Release Properties of Essential Oils From Packaging
6.6 Encapsulation of Essential Oils
6.7 Application of Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents in Different Food Products
6.7.1 Bakery Products
6.7.2 Dairy Products
6.7.3 Meat Products
6.7.4 Fruits and Vegetables
6.7.5 Others
7 Bioactivity of Essential Oils Towards Fungi and Bacteria: Mode of Action and Mathematical Tools 231
Antonio Bevilacqua, Barbara Speranza, Marianne Perricone, Milena Sinigaglia and Maria Rosaria Corbo
7.1 The Main Traits of Essential Oils
7.2 Antibacterial Activity of EOs
7.2.1 Effect on Cell Morphology
7.2.2 Disruption of the Outer Membrane of Gram‐Negative Bacteria
7.2.3 Effect on the Cytoplasmatic Membrane
7.2.4 Homeostasis, Enzymes and Other Activities
7.2.5 Changes in Proteome and Transcriptome
7.2.6 EOs and Bacterial Spores
7.3 Antifungal Activity of EOs
7.4 Mathematical Tools
7.4.1 Bacteria and Yeasts
7.4.2 Filamentous Fungi
7.4.3 Fractional Inhibitory Index
8 Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils in Foods
Seyed Mohammad Bagher Hashemi, Shima Bazgir Khorram and Maryam Sohrabi
8.1 Introduction
8.2 In Vitro Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils
8.3 Edible Oils and Fats
8.4 Meat and Poultry Products
8.5 Dairy Products
8.6 Conclusions
9 Mode of Antioxidant Action of Essential Oils
Riccardo Amorati and Mario C. Foti
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Lipid Oxidation and Antioxidant Activity of Chemical Compounds
9.3 Methods for Determining the Antioxidant Properties of Chemicals
9.3.1 Autoxidation of a Substrate
9.3.2 TBARS (Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Species)
9.3.3 The Rancimat Test
9.3.4 ORAC Assay
9.3.5 DPPH Test
9.4 Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils
9.4.1 Essential Oils Components
9.4.2 Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils
9.4.3 Antioxidant Activity of Films, Edible Coatings and Nanomaterials Containing EOs
9.5 Antioxidant Activity of EOs in Real Food Samples
9.5.1 EOs Directly Added to Food
9.5.1.1 Fish
9.5.1.2 Meat
9.5.1.3 Oil
9.5.2 EOs in Modified Atmosphere Packaging
9.5.3 Edible Coatings
9.6 Conclusions
10 Principles of Sensory Evaluation in Foods Containing Essential Oil
Emma Mani‐Lopez, Ana Cecilia Lorenzo‐Leal, Enrique Palou and Aurelio Lopez‐Malo
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Sensory Aspects of Essential Oils
10.2.1 Selected Examples
10.3 Desirable Applications of Essential Oils and Their Relation with Sensory Analysis
10.3.1 Antimicrobial Applications
10.3.2 Antioxidant Applications
10.3.3 Other Applications
10.4 The Relationship Between Composition of Essential Oils and Sensory Properties
10.5 Factors Influencing Sensory Measurements 300
10.5.1 Physiological Factors
10.5.2 Psychological Considerations
10.5.3 Other Factors
10.6 Selection and Training of Panelists
10.6.1 Panelists for Descriptive Testing
10.6.2 Trained Descriptive Panel
10.6.3 Selection and Training of Panelists for Discrimination Tests
10.7 Sample Preparation
10.8 Sensory Analysis Methods
10.9 Descriptive Tests
10.10 Discrimination Tests
10.11 Time‐Intensity Methods
10.12 Preference Tests
10.13 Sensory Analysis Reports
10.14 New Approaches to Reduce Undesirable Sensory Effects of Essential Oils
11 Global Regulation of Essential Oils
Ismail Es, Amin Mousavi Khaneghah and Hamid Akbariirad
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Global Institutions Involved in Essential Oil Regulation
11.2.1 World Health Organisation (WHO)
11.2.2 Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO)
11.2.3 FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC)
11.2.4 International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO)
11.2.5 Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
11.2.6 EU Commission
11.2.7 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
11.2.8 Essential Oil Association of the United States (EOA)
11.2.9 Australian Regulatory
11.2.10 Canadian Food and Drug Regulation
11.2.11 The American Essential Oil Trade Association (AEOTA)
11.2.12 The International Federation of Essential Oils and Aroma Trades (IFEOAT)
11.3 Conclusion
12 Safety Evaluation of Essential Oils
Ramadasan Kuttan and Vijayasteltar B. Liju
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 Use and Applications of Essential Oils
12.2 Essential Oils and General Safety
12.3 Safety of Essential Oils Used in Cosmetics and Industrial Applications
12.4 Safety of Essential Oils Used in Agriculture
12.5 Topical Administration of Essential Oils — Safety Issues
12.5.1 Essential Oils and Aromatherapy
12.6 Essential Oils and Eye Safety
12.7 Phototoxicity of Essential Oils
12.8 Acute and Sub‐Chronic Oral Toxicity of Essential Oils
12.9 Constituents‐Based Toxicity Evaluation of Essential Oils
12.10 Genotoxicity and Carcinogenicity of the Essential Oils
12.11 Conclusion
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