1 Introduction: Food Rheology and Structure
Stress and Strain Tensors
Viscometric Properties
Shear Stress–Shear Rate Relationships
Units in Rheological Measurement
Types of Fluid Flow Behavior
Newtonian Behavior
Shear-Thinning Behavior
Yield Stress
Shear-Thickening Behavior
Time-Dependent Behavior
Apparent Viscosity
Intrinsic Viscosity
Stress–Strain Behavior of Solid Foods
Linear Viscoelast[...]
1 Introduction: Food Rheology and Structure
Stress and Strain Tensors
Viscometric Properties
Shear Stress–Shear Rate Relationships
Units in Rheological Measurement
Types of Fluid Flow Behavior
Newtonian Behavior
Shear-Thinning Behavior
Yield Stress
Shear-Thickening Behavior
Time-Dependent Behavior
Apparent Viscosity
Intrinsic Viscosity
Stress–Strain Behavior of Solid Foods
Linear Viscoelasticity
Linear Viscoelasticity in Differential Form
Length Scale of Food Molecules and Foods
Phase Transitions in Foods
Glass Transition in Foods
Appendix 1-A
Momentum and Heat Transport Equations for Incompressible Fluids
Suggested Reading
2 Flow and Functional Models for Rheological Properties of Fluid Foods
Time-Independent Flow Behavior
Newtonian Model
Power Law Model
Herschel–Bulkley Model
Casson Model
Quemada Model
Apparent Viscosity—Shear Rate Relationships of Shear-Thinning Foods
Cross and Carreau Models
Models for Time-Dependent Flow Behavior
Weltman Model
Tiu–Boger Model
Role of Solids Fraction in Rheology of Dispersions
Colloidal Glass
Rheology of Protein Dispersions
Modulus of Gels of Fractal Floes
Effect of Soluble and Insoluble Solids Concentration on Apparent Viscosity of Foods
Peclet Number of Dispersions
Emulsions
Effect of Temperature on Viscosity
Combined Effect of Concentration and Temperature
Mixing Rules for two Component Blends
Treatment of Rheological Data Using Models
3 Measurement of Flow and Viscoelastic Properties
Rotational Viscometers
Concentric Cylinder Viscometer
Parallel Disk Geometry
Mixer Viscometer
Yield Stress of Foods Using a Vane
Structural Characteristics of Dispersions
Torsion Gelometer for Solid Foods
Pressure-Driven Flow Viscometers
Capillary/Tube Viscometer
Sample Calculation, Test No. 5
Glass Capillary Viscometer
Slit (Channel) Rheometer
Miscellaneous Viscometers
Viscosity Measurement at High Temperatures
In-Plant Measurement of Flow Behavior of Fluid Foods
Tomographic Techniques
Vibrational Viscometers
Extensional Flow Viscometry
Uniaxial Extension
Biaxial Extension
Planar Extension
Cogswell’s Treatment of Extensional Flow
Measurement of Viscoelastic Behavior of Fluid Foods
Oscillatory Shear Flow
Types of Dynamic Rheological Tests
Axial Motion between Coaxial Cylinders (Segel-Pochettino Geometry)
Vibrating Sphere Rheometer
Mechanical Models of Dynamic Rheological Data
Time-Temperature Superposition
Time-Temperature Superposition of Locust Bean (LB) Gum and Pectin Dispersions
Critical Stress and Strain
Creep-Compliance Behavior
Transient Viscoelastic Flow
Stress-Relaxation
Static Measurement of Modulus
Relationship among Rheological Parameters
Deborah Number
Microrheology
Single-Particle Microrheology
Diffusive Wave Spectroscopy (DWS)
Multiparticle Video Microscopy
Microstructure from Microrheology
Commercial Rheometers
Some Precautions with Foods
Appendix 3–A
Analysis of Flow in a Concentric Cylinder Geometry
Appendix 3-B
Analysis of Steady Laminar Fully Developed Flow in a Pipe
Appendix 3–C
Analysis of Flow in a Cone-Plate Geometry
4 Rheology of Food Gum and Starch Dispersions
Rheology of Food Gum Dispersions
Rheological Models for Apparent Viscosity–Shear Rate Data
Rheological Properties of Binary Mixtures of Equal Concentration
Effect of Biopolymer Concentration on Zero-Shear Viscosity
Concentration Dependence of the Zero-Shear Viscosity of Gum Mixtures
Concentration Dependence of the Zero-Shear Viscosity of Amylopectin Solutions
Viscoelastic Behavior of Food Gum Dispersions
Cox–Merz Rule for Biopolymer Dispersions
Constitutive Equations Based on Molecular Structure
Rheology of Heated Starch Dispersions
Starch Granules and Composition
Starch Gelatinization
Gelatinization Temperature and Extent of Gelatinization
Viscous and Viscoelastic Properties During Heating of Starch Dispersions
Model of Dolan et al
Model for η*-Temperature Data (Yang and Rao 1998)
Rheological Properties of Gelatinized Starch Dispersions
Rheology of Starch Dispersions with Intact Granules
Role of Particles in Shear-Thickening Nonfood Dispersions
Size Distribution of Intact Starch Granules
Antithixotropic Behavior of Cross-Linked Starch Dispersions
Starch Granule Mass Fraction and Viscosity
Mass Fraction versus Relative Viscosity
Effect of Starch Concentration
Yield Stress and Structural Characteristics of Dispersions
Effect of Temperature on Flow Behavior
Dynamic Rheological Behavior of Starch Dispersions
Effect of Particle Characteristics on Modulus
Role of Continuous and Dispersed Phases on Viscoelastic Properties of Starch Dispersions
Cross-Linked Waxy Maize Starch Dispersions
4% Tapioca Starch Dispersions
Effect of Sugar on Rheology of Starch Dispersion
Rheological Behavior of Starch–Protein Dispersions
Gluten/Starch
Soy Protein/Corn Starch
Cowpea Protein/Cowpea Starch
Whey Protein Isolate/Cross-Linked Waxy Maize
Starch Dispersions
Rheology of Starch–Gum Dispersions
5 Rheological Behavior of Processed Fluid and Semisolid Foods
Fruit Juices and Purees: Role of Soluble and Insoluble Solids
Role of PF Insoluble Solids
Size Distribution of Fruit Juice Solids
Serum Viscosity of PF Dispersions
Rheological Properties of Frozen Concentrated Orange Juice (FCOJ)
Viscoelastic Properties of Tomato Concentrates
Rheological Properties of Tomato Pastes
Role of Composition of Tomato Pastes
Model for Apparent Viscosity of PF Dispersions
Yield Stress of Structured Food Products
Correlation of Bostwick Consistometer Data in Terms of Property-Based Dimensionless Groups
Rheological Properties of Chocolate
Rheology of Milk and Milk Concentrates
Rheology of Mayonnaise, Salad Dressing, and Margarine
Stress Overshoot Data of Mayonnaise
Creep-Compliance Behavior of Mayonnaise
Rheology of Salad Dressings
Processed Foods as Soft Materials
Structural Analyses of Food Dispersions
Role of Suspended Particles in Soy Milk
Structural Components of Yield Stress
Texture Map Based on Vane Yield Stress
High Pressure Processing of Milk and Milk Proteins
Kinetics of Thermal and Pressure-induced Changes
Mechanisms of Heat-induced and Pressure-induced Changes
Structural Changes in Milk Proteins
Effect of Pressure Release Rates
Ultrahigh Pressure Homogenization of Milk
Structural Changes due to UHPH Treatment
Myofibrillar Proteins
Soy Proteins
Egg Proteins
Appendix 5–A
Literature Values of Rheological Properties of Foods
6 Rheological Behavior of Food Gels
Rheological Tests to Evaluate Properties of Gel Systems
Mechanisms of Gelation
Classification of Gels
Theoretical Treatment of Gels
Rubber Elasticity
Cascade Theory
Percolation Theory
Fractal Model
Gel Point and Sol-Gel Transition by Rheological Measurements
Rheological Definition of “Gel Point”
Extrapolation of G′ Value
Critical Viscoelastic Behavior at the Gelation Threshold
Influence of Concentration and Temperature on Gel Time
Evaluation of Structure Development during
Biopolymer Gelation
Effect of Temperature on the Rate of Structure Formation and Kinetic Data
Structure Development Rate
Kinetics of Gelation
Evaluation of Structure Loss during Melting/Softening of Biopolymer Gels
Mixed Polymer Gels
Polysaccharide-Polysaccharide Mixtures
Protein-Polysaccharide Mixtures
Biopolymer Mixtures under Flow Fields
Phase Diagrams and Modeling
Low-Fat Spreads
Starch Gels
Effect of calcium on the morphology and functionality of whey protein nanofibrils
7 Role of Rheological Behavior in Sensory Assessment of Foods and Swallowing
Stimuli for Evaluation of Viscosity
Stimuli Associated with Tilting Container and Stirring
Stimuli Associated with Oral Evaluation of Viscosity
Comparison of Oral and Nonoral Assessment Techniques
Sensory Assessment of Viscosity of Gum Dispersions
Perceived Thickness of Gum Dispersions
Spreadability: Using Force and Under Normal Gravity
Application of Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics of Spreadability
Creaminess, Smoothness, and Slipperiness
Role of Size, Shape, and Hardness of Particles
Role of Rheology in Perception of Flavor and Taste
Role of Hydrocolloid Concentration
Engineering Approach
Role of Rheology in Swallowing
A Model of the Swallowing Process
Flow Rate and Cumulative Volume for a Newtonian Fluid
Effect of Fluid Rheology on the Swallowing Process
Effect of Rheology on Time to Swallow 1.0 mL
8 Application of Rheology to Fluid Food Handling and Processing
Velocity Profiles in Tubes
Energy Requirements for Pumping
Mechanical Energy Balance Equation
Pump Selection and Pipe Sizing
Pump Discharge Pressure
Power Requirements for Pumping
Power Consumption in Agitation
Role of Flow Behavior in Agitation
Estimation of the Constant ks of an Agitator
Residence Time Distribution in Aseptic Processing Systems
Interpretation of RTD Data
Sizing Holding Tube Length
Experimental RTD Data
Helical Flow
Heat Transfer to Fluid Foods
Thermorheological Models
Thermorheogy of Starch Dispersions
Model of Dolan et al. (1989)
Continuous Flow Sterilization
Heat Transfer to Shear-Thinning Fluids
Physical Model of Non-Isothermal Laminar Flow Tube Sterilizer
Continuous Sterilization of a Fluid Food Containing Starch
Analysis of the Heating Section
Analysis of Cooling Section
Length of Heating Section
Influence of Rheological Behavior on the Heating Length
Role of Rheology in Thermal Processing of Canned Foods
Heat Penetration Parameters
Numerical Solution of Transport Equations
Estimated Heat Penetration Parameters and Broken Heating
Phenomena
Heat Transfer to a Starch Dispersion in an Intermittently Rotated Can
Intermittent Rotation Profile
Thermorheological Behavior of the Model Food
Empirical Correlations for Heat Transfer to Fluids Flowing in Tubes
Newtonian Fluid
Power Law Fluid
Empirical Correlations for Heat Transfer to Canned Fluids
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