Chapter 1 Introduction: Food Irradiation Moving On
Two Tracks Going Forward
The Food Safety Track
The Disinfestation Track
Bumps Still Remain on the Road Ahead
Chapter 2 Advances in Electron Beam and X-ray Technologies for Food Irradiation
Basic Irradiation Concepts
Definition and Units of Absorbed Dose
Absorbed Dose versus Emitted Radiation Power
Temperature Rise versus Dose
Electron Beam Facilities
Absorbed Dose [...]
Chapter 1 Introduction: Food Irradiation Moving On
Two Tracks Going Forward
The Food Safety Track
The Disinfestation Track
Bumps Still Remain on the Road Ahead
Chapter 2 Advances in Electron Beam and X-ray Technologies for Food Irradiation
Basic Irradiation Concepts
Definition and Units of Absorbed Dose
Absorbed Dose versus Emitted Radiation Power
Temperature Rise versus Dose
Electron Beam Facilities
Absorbed Dose versus Beam Current
Electron Beam Technologies
X-ray Facilities
Chapter 3 Gamma Ray Technology for Food Irradiation
Overview of Co-60 Gamma Technology
Basic Irradiation Concepts
Gamma Ray Facilities
Irradiator Categories
Criteria for Irradiator Design and Selection
Pallet Irradiator
Tote Box Irradiator
Independent Dose Delivery Carrier and Stationary Irradiations
Gray∗ Star GenesisTM Underwater Irradiator
Gamma Ray Facilities for Radiation Research
Comparison of Irradiation Technologies
Chapter 4 Regulation of Irradiated Foods and Packaging
Chapter 5 Toxicological Safety of Irradiated Foods
Food Irradiation
Benzene, Formaldehyde, and Amines
Formation and Levels of 2-ACBs in Foods
Toxicological Safety of 2-ACBs
2-ACBs and Tumor Promotion
Diet and Tumor Promotion
Chapter 6 Radiation Chemistry of Food Components
Basic Radiation Effects
Radiolysis of Water
Radiation Chemistry of Major Food Components
Radiation Chemistry of Lipids
Radiolysis of Proteins
Radiolysis of Carbohydrates
Reduction of Undesirable Compounds by Irradiation
Reduction of Furan and Acrylamide
Reduction of Mycotoxins
Antinutritional Compounds
Chapter 7 Dosimetry for Food Processing and Research Applications
Importance of Dosimetry
Some Fundamentals of Dosimetry
Absorbed Dose
Dosimetry System
Measurement Management System
Selection and Characterization of a Dosimetry System
Types of Dosimetry Systems
The Selection of an Appropriate Dosimetry System
Dosimetry System Characterization
The Use of a Dosimetry System
Dosimetry in Food Research
Dosimetry at a Commercial Facility
General
Process Validation
Operational Qualification (OQ)
Performance Qualification (PQ)
Routine Process Monitoring and Control
Chapter 8 Detection of Irradiated Foods
Free Radicals and Electronic Excited States
ESR Spectroscopy
Luminescence
Stable Radiolytic Products
Radiolytic Products from Proteins
Volatile Compounds
Radiolytic Products from Carbohydrates
Radiolytic Products from Nucleic Acids
Radiolytic Products from Lipids
Modification of Macroscopic Physico-Biological Parameters of the Food
Gas Evolution
Cellular Wall Modifications
Bacteriological Modifications
Germination Inhibition
Irradiated Ingredients and Low-Dose Irradiated Plants
Chapter 9 Irradiation of Packaging Materials in Contact with Food: An Update
Current Authorizations of Packaging Materials for Irradiation of Prepackaged Food
Radiation-Induced Chemical Changes in Packaging Materials
Role of AOs
Evaluating Packaging Materials Irradiated in the Presence of Oxygen
Irradiation Effects
Analysis for RPs
Dietary Exposure to RPs
Safety Assessment of RPs
Approaches to Testing
Chapter 10 Consumer Acceptance and Marketing of Irradiated Foods
What Is Food Irradiation?
Why Is Food Irradiated?
Marketing of Irradiation Foods
Commercial Acceptance of Irradiation Foods
Resistance to “New” Technology
Risks versus Benefits
World’s Safest Food Supply, But Not Safe Enough
Irradiation: A Powerful and Effective Tool to Improve Food Safety
Education: The Key to Consumer Acceptance
Effect of Unfavorable Information
Can Unfavorable Information Be Counteracted?
Effects of Gender, Income, and Children
Barriers to Acceptance
The “Minnesota Model” of Consumer Acceptance
A Defining Moment in Food Safety
Is It Farm to Fork, or Turf to Tort?
Chapter 11 Irradiation of Ready-To-Eat Meat Products
Materials and Methods
RTE Meats
Processing of Beef Bologna
Bacterial Isolates
Preparation of Inoculum
Inoculation of RTE Meats
Gamma Irradiation
Enumeration of Bacteria
Storage Study
D10 Values
Statistical Analysis
Results and Discussion
Chapter 12 Mechanisms and Prevention of Quality Changes in Meat by Irradiation
Food Irradiation
Microcidal Effect
Quality Changes in Meat by Irradiation
Lipid Oxidation
Sources and Mechanisms of Off-Odor Production
Color Changes in Meat by Irradiation
Control of Off-Odor Production and Color Changes
Additives
Packaging
Packaging and Additive Combinations
Future Research
Chapter 13 Phytosanitary Irradiation for Fresh Horticultural Commodities: Research and Regulations
Developing Irradiation Quarantine Treatments
Insect Radiotolerance
Methodology
Varietal Testing
Probit 9 Efficacy and Alternatives
Generic Radiation Treatments
Regulatory Aspects of Irradiation
USDA Regulations
Regional and International Harmonization
Trade
Chapter 14 Antimicrobial Application of Low-Dose Irradiation of Fresh and Fresh-Cut Produce
Produce Microbiology and Irradiation Treatment
Internalization of Bacteria
Biofilm-Associated Pathogens
Postirradiation Recovery and Regrowth
Treatment Parameters for Irradiation of Produce
Influence of Plant Variety
Combination with Sanitizers
Irradiation Plus Mild Thermal Treatment
Chapter 15 Irradiation of Fresh and Fresh-Cut Fruits and Vegetables: Quality and Shelf Life
Ethylene and Respiration
Appearance
Texture
Flavor/Taste
Nutrients
Vitamin C
Other Nutrients
Combination of Irradiation with Other Postharvest Techniques
Chemical Sanitizers
Hot-Water Treatment
Calcium and Calcium Ascorbate
MAP
Shelf-Life Extension
Chapter 16 Irradiation of Seeds and Sprouts
Outbreaks Associated with Sprouts
Potential Source of Contamination
Pathogens of Concern for Sprouts
Salmonella
Enterohemorrhagic E. coli
L. monocytogenes
B. cereus
Yersinia enterocolitica
Shigella
Klebsiella
Pathogen Decontamination Overview
Seed and Sprout Evaluation after Treatment
Radiation Dose to Reduce Microbial Pathogens on Seeds
Combination Treatments
Radiation Dose to Reduce Microbial Pathogens on Sprouts
Other
Chapter 17 Irradiation of Nuts
Farming and Harvesting
Insect Disinfestation
Microbial Contamination
Contamination with Pathogens
Irradiation Treatment of Nuts
Insect Disinfestation
Molds and Aflatoxins
Pathogen Inactivation
Chemical and Sensory: Irradiation Can Catalyze or Induce Lipid Peroxidation, and Lipid and/or Protein Radiolysis
Nonoxidative Radiolytic Reactions
Effect of Irradiation on Nut Allergenicity
Advantages of Using Irradiation to Treat Nuts
Research Needs
Chapter 18 Irradiation of Seafood with a Particular Emphasis on Listeria monocytogenes in Ready-To-Eat Products
Listeria monocytogenes Is a Significant Contaminant of Seafood
Stress Adaptation of the Organism
Irradiation Is an Effective Postprocessing Treatment for Fish Products
Physical, Chemical, and Sensory Changes of Irradiated Seafood
Competing Microflora
Comments Regarding Irradiation and the Risk for Botulism
Chapter 19 Ionizing Radiation of Eggs
Ionizing Radiation of Shell Eggs
Microbial Lethal Effect of Ionizing Radiation on Shell Eggs
Internal Quality of Ionizing Radiated Shell Eggs
Physicochemical Properties of Ionizing Radiated Shell Eggs
Functional Properties of Ionizing Radiated Shell Eggs
Ionizing Radiation of Refrigerated Liquid Egg
Ionizing Radiation of LWE
Ionizing Radiation of Liquid Egg White
Ionizing Radiation of Liquid Egg Yolk
Ionizing Radiation of Dried Egg
Microbial Lethal Effect of Ionizing Radiation in Dried Egg
Quality of Ionizing Radiated Dried Egg
Physicochemical Properties of Ionizing Radiated Dried Egg
Functional Properties of Ionizing Radiated Dried Egg
Ionizing Radiation of Frozen Egg
Microbial Lethal Effect of Ionizing Radiation in Frozen Egg
Physicochemical Properties of Ionizing Radiated Frozen Egg
Functional Properties of Ionizing Radiated Frozen Egg
Strategies to Increase the Quality of Irradiated Egg Products
Areas for Future Research
Chapter 20 Irradiated Ground Beef for the National School Lunch Program
Foodborne Illnesses in School
Regulatory Allowance and Specifications of Irradiated Foods for Schools
Sensory Properties of Irradiated Ground Beef
Chapter 21 Potential Applications of Ionizing Radiation
Reduction of Food Allergies by Ionizing Radiation
Volatile N-nitrosamine and Residual Nitrite Reduction
Biogenic Amines Reduction
Reduction of Phytic Acid and Increase in Antioxidant Activity
Chlorophyll b Breakdown
Color Improvement of Plant Extracts without Change of Biological Functions
Control of Enterobacter sakazakii in Infant Formula
Use of Irradiation to Control Food-Related Bacteria in Meat Products
Application of Irradiation for Sea Food Safety
Use of Irradiation on Fresh Produces and Dairy Products
Application of Irradiation for the Development of Traditional Fermented Foods
Use of Boiled Extracts from Cooking
Improvement of Nutritional Conditions and Food Quality by Irradiation
Chapter 22 A Future Uncertain: Food Irradiation From a Legal Perspective
Liability for the Manufacture of a Defective Food Product
The Origins of Strict Liability in Tainted Food Cases
The Modern Rule of Strict Liability
Defining Products and Defects
Proving the Existence of a Defect in Food
Strict Liability Creates Few If Any Legal Incentives in Favor of Food Irradiation
A Possible Existing Legal Duty to Use Irradiated Food: The Challenge of Highly Susceptible Populations
Negligence: Failing to Avoid a Known and Avoidable Risk
The Eggshell Plaintiff: Irradiation, Liability, and Susceptible Populations
The Prospect of Punitive Damages as a Stronger Incentive
The Possibility of Liability Arising from Irradiated Foods
Chapter 23 Technical Challenges and Research Directions in Electronic Food Pasteurization
Target Pathogens
Enteric Viruses
Protozoan Pathogens
Bacterial Pathogens
Radiation Physics and Chemistry
Chemical Environment
Standardized Protocols
Electronic Pasteurization in Conjunction with Microbial Risk Assessment
Low Dose Electronic Pasteurization and Dosimetry
Product Packaging
Electronic Pasteurization of Complex-Shaped Packages
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