Introduction
A brief history of food processing
The food industry today
About this book
References
Part 1: Basic principles 1 Properties of food and processing
1.1 Properties of foods
1.1.1 Composition
1.1.2 Physical properties
1.1.3 Biochemical properties
1.1.4 Sensory characteristics
1.1.5 Nutritional quality
1.2 Food spoilage, safety and shelf-life
1.2.1 Physical changes to foods
1.2.2 Bioch[...]
Introduction
A brief history of food processing
The food industry today
About this book
References
Part 1: Basic principles 1 Properties of food and processing
1.1 Properties of foods
1.1.1 Composition
1.1.2 Physical properties
1.1.3 Biochemical properties
1.1.4 Sensory characteristics
1.1.5 Nutritional quality
1.2 Food spoilage, safety and shelf-life
1.2.1 Physical changes to foods
1.2.2 Biochemical changes
1.2.3 Microbiological changes
1.2.4 Food safety
1.3 Types of processing
1.3.1 Hurdle concepts
1.3.2 Heat transfer
1.3.3 Moisture management
1.3.4 Fluid flow
1.3.5 Biochemical preservation
1.3.6 Preservation by modification of environmental conditions
1.3.7 Calculation of shelf-life
1.4 Effects of processing
1.4.1 Effects on physical properties of foods
1.4.2 Effects on sensory properties of foods
1.4.3 Effects on nutritional value of foods
1.5 Control of processing
1.5.1 Management of quality and food safety
References
Part II: Ambient-temperature processing
2 Raw material preparation
2.1 Cooling crops and carcasses
2.2 Cleaning
2.2.1 Wet cleaning
2.2.2 Dry cleaning
2.3 Sorting and grading
2.3.1 Shape and size sorting
2.3.2 Weight sorting
2.3.3 Colour and machine vision sorting and grading
2.4 Peeling
References
3 Size reduction
3.1 Size reduction of solid foods
3.1.1 Theory
3.1.2 Equipment
3.1.3 Developments in size reduction technology
3.1.4 Effect on foods
3.1.5 Effect on micro-organisms
3.2 Size reduction ofliquid foods
3.2.1 Theory
3.2.2 Emulsifying agents and stabilisers
3.2.3 Equipment
3.2.4 Effect on foods
3.2.5 Effect on micro-organisms
References
4 Mixing and forming
4.1 Mixing
4.1.1 Theory of solids mixing
4.1.2 Theory of liquids mixing
4.1.3 Equipment
4.1.4 Effect on foods and micro-organisms
4.2 Forming
4.2.1 Bread moulders
4.2.2 Pie, tart and biscuit formers
4.2.3 Confectionery moulders and depositors
References
5 Separation and concentration of food components
5.1 Centrifugation
5.1.1 Theory
5.1.2 Equipment
5.2 Filtration
5.2.1 Theory
5.2.2 Equipment
5.3 Expression
5.3.1 Theory
5.3.2 Equipment
5.4 Extraction using solvents
5.4.1 Theory
5.4.2 Solvents
5.4.3 Supercritical CO2
5.4.4 Equipment
5.5 Membrane concentration
5.5.1 Theory
5.5.2 Equipment and applications
5.5.3 Types of membrane system
5.5.4 Effects on foods and micro-organisms
References
6 Food biotechnology
6.1 Genetic modification
6.1.1 GM food crops
6.1.2 Public perceptions of GM foods
6.1.3 Genetically modified micro-organisms
6.1.4 Legislation and safety testing
6.2 Nutritional genomics
6.3 Functional foods
6.3.1 Health claims and regulation
6.3.2 Probiotic foods
6.3.3 Prebiotic foods
6.4 Fermentation technology
6.4.1 Theory
6.4.2 Equipment
6.4.3 Commercial food fermentations
6.4.4 Effects on foods
6.5 Microbial enzymes
6.5.1 Novel enzyme technologies
6.6 Microencapsulation and controlled release technologies
6.7 Bacteriocins and antimicrobial ingredients
References
7 Irradiation
7.1 Theory
7.1.1 Dose distribution
7.2 Equipment
7.2.1 Measurement of radiation dose
7.3 Applications
7.3.1 Sterilisation (or 'radappertisation')
7.3.2 Reduction of pathogens (or 'radicidation')
7.3.3 Prolonging shelf-life (or 'radurisation')
7.3.4 Control of ripening
7.3.5 Disinfestation
7.3.6 Inhibition of sprouting
7.4 Effect on foods
7.4.1 Induced radioactivity
7.4.2 Radiolytic products
7.4.3 Nutritional and sensory properties
7.5 Effect on micro-organisms
7.6 Effect on packaging
7.7 Detection of irradiated foods
7.7.1 Physical methods
7.7.2 Chemical methods
7.7.3 Biological methods
References
8 High-pressure processing
8.1 Theory
8.1.1 Effect on food components
8.1.2 Mechanism of inactivation of microbial cells
8.2 Equipment
8.2.1 Batch operation
8.2.2 Semi-continuous operation
8.2.3 Process developments
8.3 Effect on parasites and micro-organisms
8.3.1 Yeasts and moulds
8.3.2 Bacteria
8.3.3 Viroses
8.4 Effect on enzymes
8.5 Effects on foods
8.6 Combinations of high pressure and other minimal processing techniques
References
9 Minimal processing methods under development
9.1 Pulsed electric field processing
9.1.1 Theory
9.1.2 Equipment
9.1.3 Effects on micro-organisms, enzymes and food components
9.1.4 Combinations of PEF and other treatments
9.2 Processing using electric arc discharges
9.3 Processing using oscillating magnetic fields
9.4 Processing using pulsed light and UV light
9.4.1 Theory
9.4.2 Equipment
9.4.3 Effect on micro-organisms, enzymes and food components
9.5 Processing using pulsed X-rays
9.6 Processing using ultrasound
9.6.1 Theory
9.6.2 Processing
9.6.3 Effect on micro-organisms and foods
References
Part III: Processing by application of heat
10 Beat processing
10.1 Theory
10.1.1 Thermal properties of foods
10.1.2 Heat transfer
10.2 Sources of heat and methods of application to foods
10.2.1 Direct heating methods
10.2.2 Indirect heating methods
10.2.3 Energy use and methods to reduce energy consumption
10.2.4 Types of heat exchangers
10.3 Effect of heat on micro-organisms and enzymes
10.4 Effect of heat on nutritional and sensory characteristics of foods
References
III.A Heat processing using steam or water
11 Blanching
11.1 Theory
11.2 Equipment
11.2.1 Steam blanchers
11.2.2 Hot-water blanchers
11.2.3 Newer blanching methods
11.3 Effect on foods
11.4 Effect on micro-organisms
References
12 Pasteurisation
12.1 Theory
12.2 Equipment
12.2.1 Pasteurisation of packaged foods
12.2.2 Pasteurisation of unpackaged liquids
12.3 Effect on foods
References
13 Heat sterilisation
13.1 ln-container sterilisation
13.1.1 Theory
13.1.2 Retorting
13.1.3 Equipment
13.2 Ultra-high-temperature (UHT)/aseptic processes
13.2.1 Theory
13.2.2 Processing
13.2.3 Equipment
13.3 Effect on foods
13.3.1 Canning
13.3.2 UHT processing
References
14 Evaporation and distillation
14.1 Evaporation
14.1.1 Theory
14.1.2 Improving the economics of evaporation
14.1.3 Equipment
14.1.4 Effect on foods and micro-organisms
14.2 Distillation
14.2.1 Theory
14.2.2 Equipment
14.2.3 Effect on foods and micro-organisms
References
15 Extrusion
15.1 Extrusion cooking theory
15.1.1 Properties of ingredients
15.1.2 Extruder operating characteristics
15.2 Equipment
15.2.1 Single-screw extruders
15.2.2 Twin-screw extruders
15.2.3 Control of extruders
15.3 Applications
15.3.1 Confectionery products
15.3.2 Cereal products
15.3.3 Protein-based foods
15.4 Effects on foods and micro-organisms
15.4.1 Sensory characteristics
15.4.2 Nutritional value
15.4.3 Effect on micro-organisms
References
III.B Heat processing using hot air
16 Dehydration
16.1 Theory
16.1.1 Drying using heated air
16.1.2 Drying using heated surfaces
16.1.3 Intermediate moisture foods
16.2 Equipment
16.2.1 Hot-air driers
16.2.2 Heated-surface (or contact) driers
16.3 Control of dryers
16.4 Rehydration
16.5 Effect on foods and micro-organisms
16.5.1 Sensory properties
16.5.2 Nutritional value
16.5.3 Effect on micro-organisms
References
17 Smoking
17.1 Theory
17.1.1 Constituents in smoke
17.1.2 Liquid smoke
17.2 Processing
17.2.1 Equipment
17.3 Effect on foods
17.4 Effect on micro-organisms
References
18 Baking and roasting
18.1 Theory
18.2 Equipment
18.2.1 Batch and semi-continuous ovens
18.2.2 Continuous ovens
18.2.3 Control of ovens
18.3 Effect on foods and micro-organisms
18.3.1 Changes to sensory qualities
18.3.2 Changes to nutritional value
18.3.3 Effect on micro-organisms
References
III.C Heat processing using hot oils
19 Frying
19.1 Theory
19.1.1 Heat and mass transfer
19.1.2 Frying time and temperature
19.2 Equipment
19.2.1 Atmospheric fryers
19.2.2 Vacuum and pressure fryers
19.2.3 Control of fryer operation, oil filtration and heat recovery
19.3 Types of oils used for frying
19.3.1 Effect of frying on oils
19.4 Effect of frying on foods and micro-organisms
19.4.1 Oil absorption
19.4.2 Changes to texture, colour and flavour
19.4.3 Nutritional changes
19.4.4 Effect on micro-organisms
References
III.D Heat processing by direct and radiated energy
20 Dielectric, ohmic and infrared heating
20.1 Dielectric heating
20.1.1 Theory
20.1.2 Equipment
20.1.3 Applications
20.1.4 Effect on foods and micro-organisms
20.2 Ohmic heating
20.2.1 Theory
20.2.2 Equipment and applications
20.2.3 Effect on foods and micro-organisms
20.3 Infrared heating
20.3.1 Theory
20.3.2 Equipment
20.3.3 Effect on foods and micro-organisms
References
Part IV: Processing by removal of heat
21 Chilling and modified atmospheres
21.1 Theory
21.1.1 Refrigeration
21.1.2 Modified atmospheres
21.2 Equipment
21.2.1 Mechanical refrigerators
21.2.2 Cryogenic chilling
21.2.3 Cold storage
21.2.4 Temperature monitoring
21.2.5 Modified and controlled atmosphere storage
21.3 Applications
21.3.1 Fresh foods
21.3.2 Processed foods
21.4 Effect on sensory and nutritional qualities of foods
21.5 Effect on micro-organisms
References
22 Freezing
22.1 Theory
22.1.1 Ice crystal formation
22.1.2 Solute concentration
22.1.3 Calculation of freezing time
22.1.4 Thawing
22.2 Equipment
22.2.1 Mechanical freezers
22.2.2 Cryogenic freezers
22.2.3 New developments in freezing
22.2.4 Frozen storage
22.2.5 T Thawing
2.3 Effect on foods
22.3.1 Freezing
22.3.2 Frozen storage
22.3.3 Thawing
22.4 Effect on micro-organisms
References
23 Freeze drying and freeze concentration
23.1 Freeze drying
23.1.1 Theory
23.1.2 Equipment
23.1.3 Effect on foods and micro-organisms
23.2 Freeze concentration
23.2.1 Theory
23.2.2 Equipment
23.2.3 Effect on foods and micro-organisms
References
Part V: Post-processing operations
24 Coating
24.1 Coating materials
24.1.1 Chocolate and compound coatings
24.1.2 Batters, powders and breadcrumbs
24.2 Equipment
24.2.1 Enrobers
24.2.2 Dusting or breading
24.2.3 Pan coating
24.3 Microencapsulation and edible barrier coatings
24.3.1 Edible barrier coatings
References
25 Packaging
25.1 Theory
25.1.1 Factors affecting the selection of a packaging material
25.1.2 Interactions between packaging and foods
25.2 Types of packaging materials
25.2.1 Textiles and wood
25.2.2 Metal
25.2.3 Glass
25.2.4 Flexible films
25.2.5 Rigid and semi-rigid plastic containers
25.2.6 Paper and board
25.2.7 Combined packaging systems
25.3 MAP
25.3.1 Effect on micro-organisms
25.3.2 Packaging materials for MAP
25.4 Packaging developments
25.4.1 Edible and biodegradable packaging
25.4.2 Nanotechnology
25.4.3 Active and intelligent packaging
25.5 Printing
25.5.1 Barcodes and other markings
25.6 Environmental considerations
25.6.1 Packaging costs
25.6.2 Recycling
References
26 Filling and sealing of containers
26.1 Rigid and semi-rigid containers
26.1.1 Filling
26.1.2 Sealing
26.2 Flexible containers
26.2.1 Form-fill-sealing
26.3 Shrink-wrapping and stretch-wrapping
26.4 Tamper-evident packaging
26.5 Labelling
26.6 Checkweighing
26.7 Metal detection
References
27 Materials handling and process control
27.1 Materials handling
27.1.1 Hygienic design and cleaning
27.1.2 Solids handling methods
27.1.3 Liquid handling methods
27.1.4 Water and waste management
27.2 Process control
27.2.1 Sensors
27.2.2 Controllers and PLCs
27.2.3 Neural networks, fuzzy logic and robotics
27.2.4 Production control
27.3 Logistics and control of storage and distribution
27.3.1 Warehousing operation
27.3.2 Distribution logistics
References
Part VI Appendices
A.1 Selection of hydrocolloids
A.2 Nature, properties, functions and sources of vitamins
A.3 Properties, functions and sources of mineraIs
A.4 Additives currently permitted in food within the EU and their associated E numbers
A.5 Examples of functional components of foods
B.1 Sources and symptoms of pathogenic bacteria
B.2 Characteristics of viral foodbome infections
B.3 Enzymes from GM micro-organisms used in food processing
B.4 Examples of food fermentations
C.1 Units and conversions
D.1 Glossary
D.2 List of acronyms
D.3 List of symbols
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