Chapter 1 : Mass-Volume-Area-Related Properties of Foods
I. Introduction
II. Fundamental Considerations
A. Volume
1. Boundary Volume
2. Pore Volume
B. Density
1. True Density
2. Material Density
3. Particle Density
4. Apparent Density
5. Bulk Density
C. Porosity
1. Open Pore Porosity
2. Closed Pore Porosity
3. Apparent Porosity
4. Bulk Porosity
5. Bulk- Particle Porosity
Chapter 1 : Mass-Volume-Area-Related Properties of Foods
I. Introduction
II. Fundamental Considerations
A. Volume
1. Boundary Volume
2. Pore Volume
B. Density
1. True Density
2. Material Density
3. Particle Density
4. Apparent Density
5. Bulk Density
C. Porosity
1. Open Pore Porosity
2. Closed Pore Porosity
3. Apparent Porosity
4. Bulk Porosity
5. Bulk- Particle Porosity
6. Total Porosity
D. Surface Area
E. Pore Size Distribution
III. Measurement Techniques
A. Density Measurement
1. Apparent Density
2. Material Density
3. Particle Density
4. Bulk Density
B. Measurement Techniques of Porosity
1. Direct Method
2. Optical Microscopic Method
3. Density Method
C. Surface Area
1. Boundary Surface Area
2. Pore Surface Area
3. Cross-Sectional Area
IV. Specific Data
A. Predictions of Density
1. Gases and Vapors
2. Liquid Foods
3. Density of Solid Foods
B. Predictions of Porosity
C. Prediction of Surface Area
1. Euclidian Geometry
2. Non-Euclidian or Irregular Geometry
3.Theoretical Prediction
4. Size Distribution
Summary
Acknowledgments
List of Symbols
Greek Symbols
Subscripts
Superscripts
References
Chapter 2 : Rheological Properties of Fluid Foods
1. Introduction
II. Rheological Classification of Fluid Foods
A. Rheological Models for Viscous Foods
1. Models for Time-Independent Behavior
2. Rheological Models for Thixotropic Foods
3. Effect of Temperature on Viscosity
4. Combined Effect of Temperature and Shear Rate
5. Effect of Concentration on Viscosity
B. Rheological Models for Viscoelastic Fluid Foods
1. Normal Stress Data on Fluid Foods
2. Creep Compliance Studies on Food
III. Structure of Fluid Foods via Solution Viscosity and Physicochemical Approach
A. Solution Viscosity
B. Physicochemical Approach
IV. Measurement of Flow Properties of Fluid Foods
A. Fundamental Methods
1. Capillary Flow
2. Couette Flow Viscometers
3. Plate-and-Cone Viscometers
4. Parallel Plate Geometry
5. Slit (Channel) Rheometers
6. Extensional Flows
B. Empirical Methods
1. Adams Consistometer
2. Bostwick Consistometer
3. Efflux Tube Viscometer
C. Imitative Methods
1. Mixers for Determining Flow Properties
2. ln-Plant Measurement of Rheological Behavior of Fluid Foods
V. Flow of Fluid Foods in Tubes
A. Isothermal Flow of Fluids in Tubes
1. Velocity Profiles and Volumetric Flow Rate Relationships
2. Friction Losses for Power Law Foods in Pipes
3. Pressure Drop Across Valves and Fittings
4. Friction Losses for Herschel-Bulkley Fluids
5. Calculation of Kinetic Energy for Non-Newtonian Fluids
VI. Conclusion
List of Symbols
Greek Symbols
Subscripts
Superscript
References
Chapter 3 : Rheological Properties of Solid Foods
1. Introduction
II. Quasistatic Tests for Solid Foods
A. Introduction
B. Some Simple Tests
C. Rheological Modeling
D. Creep
E. Relaxation
III. Dynamic Testing of Solid Foods
A. Introduction
B. Theoretical Considerations
1. Resonance
2. Direct Stress-Strain Tests
C. Application of Resonance
D. Application of Direct Stress-Strain Tests
IV. Failure and Glass Transition in Solid Foods
A. Failure in Solid Foods
B. Glass Transition of Solid Foods
1. Factors that Affect Glass Transition
2. Measurement of Glass Transition
3. Importance of Glass Transition in Solid Foods
V. Empirical and Imitative Tests
A. Introduction
B. Texture Profile Analysis
C. Texture (Shear) Press
D. Warner-Bratzler Shear
E. FMC Pea Tenderometer
F. Penetrometer
G. Other Empirical Methods
VI. Conclusions
References
Chapter 4 : Thermal Properties of Unfrozen Foods
1. Introduction
A. The Importance of Thermal Properties for the Quality and Safety of Foods
B. Modeling and Optimization of Processes
II. Sources of Data on Thermal Properties
A. Measurement
B. Literature
C. Computerized and On-Line Databases
D. Software for Predicting Thermal Properties of Foods
III. Density
A. Definition of Powder Bulk Density
IV. Specific Heat Capacity
A. Latent Heat of Melting
B. Specific and Latent Heat of Fats
V. Thermal Conductivity
A. Predictive Equations
B. Influence of Structure of Food on Thermal Conductivity
VI. Measurement Methods for Thermal Conductivity
A. The Basis of Operation of the NeedIe Probe
B. Reference Materials
VII. Other Properties Relevant to Thermal Processing of Foods
A. Compressibility and Thermal Expansion
B. Glass Transitions
C. Sorption and Hydration Properties
VIII. Conclusions
Symbols, Names, and Dimensions
References
Chapter 5 : Thermal Properties of Frozen Foods
I. Introduction
II. Experimental Approaches to Measuring the Thermal Properties of Frozen Foods
A. Initial Freezing Point and Unfrozen Water
B. Density
C. Thermal Conductivity
D. Enthalpy
E. Specific Heat
F. Thermal Diffusivity
III. General Observations on the Reliability of Experimental Data
IV. Modeling of the Thermal Properties of Frozen Foods
A. Prediction of Unfrozen Water During Freezing of Foods
1. Density
2. Thermal Conductivity
3. Enthalphy
4. Apparent Specific Heat
B. Limitations of Predictive Models
List of Symbols
Greek Symbols
Subscripts
References
Chapter 6 : Properties Relevant to Infrared Heating of Foods
I. Introduction
II. Fundamentals of Infrared Interactions with Materials
A. Electromagnetic Spectrum and Near-, Mid- and Far-Infrared Electromagnetic Waves
B. Interaction between Infrared Radiation and Food Materials
C. Sources of Infrared Radiation in Heating Applications
D. Emission and Emissivity
E. Reflection, Absorption, and Transmission
F. Absorptivity and Emissivity
G. Attenuation or Extinction
III. Use of the Radiative Properties in Modeling of Heat Transfer
IV. Measurement of Radiative Properties of Foods
V. Radiative Property Data for Food Systems
A. Radiative Property Data for Water, Ice, and Water Vapor
B. Properties of Other Pure Food Components
C. Spectral Variation of Radiative Property Data: Potato Tissue as an Example
D. Moisture Dependence of Radiative Property Data
E. Temperature Dependence of Radiative Property Data
F. Dependence of Radiative Property Data on Food Structure
G. How Processing Can Change Food Radiative Properties
H. Summary: Use of Radiative Property Data in Modeling
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 7 : Thermodynamic Properties of Foods in Dehydration
I. Introduction
II. Thermodynamics of Food-Water Systems
A. Chemical Potential and Phase Equilibria
B. Fugacity and Activity
C. Water Activity in Foods
D. Measurement of Water Activity
1. Measurements Based on Colligative Properties
2. Measurements Based on Psychrometry
3. Measurements Based on Isopiestic Transfer
4. Measurements Based on Suction (Matric) Potential
E. Adjustment of Water Activity
F. Moisture Sorption Isotherms
1. Theoretical Description of MSls
2. Effect of Temperature
III. Sorption Energetics
A. Differential Quantities
B. Integral Quantities
D. Hysteresis and Irreversibility
E. Kinetic Aspects
IV. Dehydration Principles and Processes
A. Drying Behavior
B. Constant-Rate Period
C. Falling-Rate Period
D. Equilibrium Moisture Content
E. Energy Requirements
V. Conclusion
List of Symbols
Greek Symbols
Subscripts
Superscripts
References
Chapter 8 : Mass Transfer Properties of Foods
I. Introduction
II. Phase Equilibria
A. Vapor-Liquid Equilibria
B. Gas-Liquid Equilibria
C. Liquid-Liquid and Liquid-Solid Equilibria
D. Gas-Solid and Vapor-Solid Equilibria
Water Activity
III. Diffusion
A. Diffusion in Gases
B. Diffusion in Liquids
C. Diffusion in Solids
1. Introduction
2. Diffusion in Polymers
3. Molecular Simulations
D. Estimation of Diffusivity in Solids
1. Sorption Kinetics
2. Permeation Measurements
3. Distribution of Penetrant
4. Drying Rate
IV. Interphase Mass Transfer
A. Mass Transfer Coefficients
B. Penetration Theory
C. Analogies of Heat and Mass Transfer
D. Effect of Surfactants
V. Mass Transfer in Foods
A. Moisture Transport
1. Moisture Diffusion
2. Diffusion in Porous Foods
3. Interphase Moisture Transfer
B. Diffusion of Solutes
C. Diffusion of Aroma Compounds
VI. Other Mass Transfer Processes
A. Extraction
B. Distillation and Gas Absorption
C. Crystallization
D. Food Packaging
Acknowledgments
List of Symbols
Greek Symbols
References
Chapter 9 : Physicochemical and Engineering Properties of Food in Membrane Separation Processes
I. Introduction
II. Transport Theories
A. Case 1: Preferential Sorption of Water at the Membrane Solution Interface
1. Basic Transport Equations
2. Relationship between (DAM/KP)NaCI and DAM/KP for Other Solutes
3. RO Process Design
B. Case II: Surface Force-Pore Flow Model; Generation of Interfacial Surface Force Parameters and Their Application
1. Analysis Fundamentals
2. Quantities Ra, Rb, and d
3. Definitions of Dimensionless Quantities
4. Basic Transport Equations
5. Liquid Chromatography for the Determination of Interfacial Interaction Force Parameters
6. Data on Interfacial Surface Force Parameters
7. Data on Pore Size and Pore Size Distribution
III. Problems in Membrane Separation and Concentration of Liquid Foods
A. Application of Water Preferential Sorption Model
1. Separation of Undissociated Organic Solutes Such as Sugars Present in High Concentration
2. Separarations of Undissociated Polar Organic Solutes Present in Low Concentrations
3. Separation of Partially Dissociated Organic Solutes Present in Low Concentration
4. Problem of Separations of Low Concentrations of Undissociated Organic Solutes in Concentrated Sugar Solutions
5. Separation of Solutions of Partially Dissociated Acids Present in Concentrated Sugar Solutions
B. Application of Transport Equations to Real Fruit Juice Concentration
C. Application of Transport Equations for the Concentration of Green Tea Juice
D. Some Illustrative Examples of the Surface Force-Pore Flow Model
1. Parametric Studies on Solute Separation and Product Rate
2. Another Parametric Study on Solute Concentration Profile and Solution Velocity Profile
E. Some Data on the Ultrafiltration of Proteins
1. Ultrafiltration of Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) and a-Casein
2. Effects of Fouling on Membrane Performance and Pore Size and Pore Size Distribution
3. Fractionation of the Protein-Sugar System and the Protein-Protein System in the Aqueous Solutions
F. Application of Pervaporation in the Recovery and Concentration of Food
IV. Recent Literature on Membrane Applications
A. Dairy Product Industry
1. Reverse Osmosis
2. Nanofiltration
3. Ultrafiltration
4. Microfiltration
B. Beverage Industry
1. Reverse Osmosis
2. Ultrafiltration
3. Microfiltration
C. Edible Oil Industry
1. Reverse Osmosis
2. Ultrafiltration
3. Microfiltration
V. Conclusion
List of Symbols
Greek Symbols
References
Chapter 10 : Electrical Conductivity of Foods
I. Introduction
II. Basic Definitions
III. Liquid Foods
A. Theory of Electrolytic Conductivity
1. Strong Electrolytes
2. Weak Electrolytes
B. Relations between Electrical Conductivity and Other Transport Properties
C. Effect of Temperature
D. Effect of Electric Field Strength
E. Effect of Ingredients
1. Electrolytic Solutes
2. Inert Suspended Solids
4. Phase Transitions of Suspended Solids
5. Effect of Nonelectrolytic Solutes
IV. Solid Foods
A. Effect of Microstructure
B. Effects of Tempeature and Electric Field Strength
1. Gels and Noncellular Solids
2. Solids with Undisrupted Cellular Structure
3. Modeling of Cell Membrane Breakdown
4. Reversibility and Repair of Pores
5. Extension to Eukaryotic Cells
C. Effect of Frequency
1. Relation to Dielectric Constant
D. Ingredient Effects
V. Solid-Liquid Mixtures
A. Models for Effective Electrical Conductivity
1. Maxwell Model
2. Meredith and Tobias (1960) Model
3. Series Model
4. Parallel Model
5. Kopelman Model
6. Probability Model
7. Comparison of Models
B. Effects of Solids in Tube Flow
VI. Methods of Measurement of Electrical Conductivity
List of Symbols
Greek Letters and Other Symbols
Subscripts/Superscripts Not Explained Elsewhere
References
Chapter 11 : Dielectric Properties of Foods
1. Introduction
II. Basic Principles
A. Radiofrequency vs. Microwave Heating
III. Measurement Principles
A. Waveguide and Coaxial Transmission Line Methods
B. Short-Circuited Line Technique
C. Open- Ended Probe Technique
D. Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) Method
E. Free-Space Transmission Technique
F. Microstrip Transmission Line
G. Six-Port Reflectometer Using an Open-Ended Coaxial Probe
H. Colloid Dielectric Probe (Hewlett Packard)
I. Test Cell with Boonton RX-Meter
J. Cavity Perturbation Technique
1. Solid Sample Preparation
2. Liquid Sample Preparation
3. Semisolid Samples
K. Summary of Dielectric Property Measurement Techniques
IV. Frequency and Temperature Dependence
A. Frequency Dependence
A. Frequency Dependence in Food Materials
B. Temperature Dependence in Water, Salt Solutions, and Foods
1. Dielectric Properties below Freezing and above Boiling Temperatures
2. Temperature Dependence of Loss Factor and Runaway Heating
V. Composition Dependence
A. Moisture Dependence
B. Dielectric Properties of Carbohydrates
1. Starch
2. Sugar
3. Gums
C. Dielectric Properties of Proteins
D. Dielectric Properties of Fat
E. Dielectric Properties of Meats
F. Dielectric Properties of Fish and Seafood
G. Dielectric Properties of Fruits and Vegetables
H. Dielectric Properties of Dairy Products
VI. Dielectric Properties of Insect Pests
VII. Dielectric Properties of Packaging Materials
VIII. Effects of Processing and Storage on Dielectric Properties of Food
A. Baking
B. Drying
C. Cooking
D. Mixing
E. Storage
IX. Assessment of Food Quality by Using Dielectric Properties
X. Further Sources of Data
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 12: Ultrasound Properties
1. Introduction
II. Fundamentals of Acoustics
A. Speed of Sound, Density, and Elastic Moduli
B. Amplitude and Attenuation
1. Scattering
2. Absorption
C. Impedance, Reflection, and Refraction
D. Doppler Shift Frequency and Velocity
III. Ultrasonic Measurement Techniques
A. Ultrasonic Methods
1. Pulsed- Echo
2. Pitch-and-Catch
3. Interferometry
4. Spectral Analysis
5. Ultrasonic Imaging
B. Transducer Selection
C. Interpretation of Ultrasonic Measurements
IV. Compilation of Acoustic Properties
A. Composition
1. Solutions and Beverages
2. Concentrated Solutions
3. Oils
4. Emulsions
5. Muscle Foods
B. Phase Transitions
1. Freezing
2. Crystallization of Fats
3. Gelation
C. Texture
1. Firmness of Fruits/Vegetables
2. Cheese
3. Starch Products
D. Viscosity
1. Viscosity and Attenuation
2. Viscosity and UDV
V. Conclusion
List of Symbols
Greek Symbols
Subscripts
Superscripts
References
Chapter 13 : Kinetic Data for Biochemical and Microbiological Processes during Thermal Processing
I. Introduction
II. Fundamental Considerations
A. Primary Kinetic Models
1. Zero-Order Model
2. First-Order Model
3. Biphasic Model
4. Fractional Conversion Model
B. Secondary Kinetic Models
1. Influence of Temperature on the Reaction Rate Constant
2. Selection of a Temperature Coefficient Model
III. Measurement Techniques
IV. Specific Data on Properties
A. Microbial Inactivation
B. Enzyme Inactivation
C. Texture Degradation
D. Color Degradation
E. Flavor Degradation
F. Nutrient Degradation
References
Chapter 14 : Gas Exchange Properties of Fruit and Vegetables
I. Introduction
II. Fundamental Considerations
A. Respiration and Fermentation
1. Respiration Rate
2. Respiration and Fermentation Models
3. Gas Transport Properties
B. Measurement Techniques
1. Oxygen Consumption and Carbon Dioxide Production Rate
2. Measurement of O2 and CO2 Concentration
3. Measurement of Heat of Respiration
4. Skin Resistance and Gas Diffusion Properties
C. Gas Exchange Data for Selected Fruits and Vegetables
III. Applications
Acknowledgments
List of Symbols
References
Chapter 15 : Surface Properties
I. Introduction
II. Fundamental Considerations
A. Definition
B. The Gibbs Adsorption equation
C. The contact Angle
1. Critical Surface Tension
2. Polar and Dispersive Contributions to Surface Energy
3. An Equation of State Relationship between Interfacial Energies
D. Effects of Adsorbed Layer Composition and Structure on Interfacial Energy
III. Measurement Techniques
A. Evaluation of the Contact Angle
B. Evaluation of Liquid Surface Tension
C. Evaluation of gammaLd and gammaSd
IV. Surface Property Data
V. Summary
References
Chapter 16 : Colorimetric Properties of Foods
I. Introduction
II. Physiological Basis of Color
III. Measurement of Color
A. Spectrophotometry
B. Tristimulus Colorimetry
C. Specialized Colorimeters
IV. Presentation of Samples
V. Research and Quality Control Approaches
VI. Color Tolerances
VII. Development of Instruments
VIII. Conclusion
References
Index
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