Contributors
Preface
1 Introduction
1.1 Rationale for this book
1.2 The second edition
2 Market development of bottled waters
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The historical background
2.3 Market segmentation
2.4 Global giants and local leaders
2.5 Global review
2.6 USA
2.7 Europe into the new millennium
2.8 China
2.9 Trends for the future
3 Categories of bottled water
3.1 Introduction
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Contributors
Preface
1 Introduction
1.1 Rationale for this book
1.2 The second edition
2 Market development of bottled waters
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The historical background
2.3 Market segmentation
2.4 Global giants and local leaders
2.5 Global review
2.6 USA
2.7 Europe into the new millennium
2.8 China
2.9 Trends for the future
3 Categories of bottled water
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Europe
3.2.1 Natural Mineral Waters
3.2.1.1 Recognition of Natural Mineral Waters
3.2.1.2 Exploitation of Natural Mineral Waters
3.2.1.3 Labelling ofNatural Mineral Waters
3.2.2 Spring Water
3.2.3 Other bottled waters in Europe
3.2.4 Implementation of the Directives in Europe
3.2.5 Future developments in Europe
3.3 North America
3.3.1 Unites States
3.3.1.1 Federal Regulation
3.3.1.2 State Regulation
3.3.1.3 Industry Regulation
3.3.1.4 Quality standards
3.3.2 Canada
3.4 Codex Alimentarius
3.4.1 Codex and Natural Mineral Waters
3.4.2 Codex and Non-Natural Mineral Waters
3.5 Latin America
3.6 Australia and New Zealand
3.7 Asia
3.8 South Africa
3.9 Conclusions
4 Hydogeology of bottled waters
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Understanding underground water - hydrogeology
4.2.1 Underground water - a key part of the water cycle
4.2.2 Recharge to underground water
4.2.3 Groundwater occurrence
4.2.4 Water levels and groundwater flow
4.2.5 Storage of water in aquifers
4.2.6 Wells, springs and boreholes
4.2.7 Flow to wells and boreholes
4.3 Groundwater quality
4.3.1 Hydrochemistry - the history of groundwater
4.3.2 Terms, definitions and concepts
4.3.3 Hardness and alkalinity
4.3.4 Evolution of groundwaters
4.3.5 Human influences on groundwater
4.3.6 Hydrochemical classification of bottled waters
4.4 Groundwater source development
4.4.1 Stages of development
4.4.2 Resource evaluation
4.4.3 Source definition
4.4.4 Source construction
4.4.4.1 Springs
4.4.4.2 Boreholes
4.5 Management of groundwater sources
4.5.1 Record keeping
4.5.2 Sampling and water quality analysis
4.5.3 Control of exploitation
4.5.4 Risk assessment and definition of protection zones
4.5.5 Monitoring, maintenance and rehabilitation
4.5.6 Monitoring borehole yield
4.5.7 Changes in water quality
5 Water treatments
5.1 Why and when water must be treated
5.1.1 Compliance with local regulations
5.1.2 Quality reasons
5.1.3 Marketing reasons
5.2 Water treatment objectives
5.2.1 Removal of undissolved elements
5.2.2 Removal /inactivation of undesirable biological eIements
5.2.3 Removal of undesirable chemical eIements
5.2.3.1 Iron and manganese
5.2.3.2 Ammonium
5.2.3.3 Arsenic
5.2.3.4 Fluoride
5.2.3.5 Organic matter
5.2.3.6 Volatile organic compounds and pesticides
5.2.4 Addition of valuable 'elements'
5.3 Water treatment processes
5.3.1 Filtration
5.3.1.1 Mass media filters
5.3.1.2 Other filters
5.3.2 Membrane processes
5.3.3 Adsorption
5.3.3.1 Activated carbon
5.3.3.2 Manganese dioxide
5.3.3.3 Activated alumina
5.3.4 Ion exchange
5.3.5 Chemical oxidation
5.3.6 Biological processes
5.3.7 Microbiological treatments
5.3.7.1 Microfiltration
5.3.7.2 Chemical treatment
5.3.7.3 Ultraviolet
5.4 Conclusion
6 Bottling water - maintaining safety and integrity through the process
6.1 Nature of water
6.1.1 Physical properties
6.1.2 Chemical properties
6.1.3 Biological properties
6.2 Influencing factors
6.2.1 Materials in contact with water
6.2.2 Plant equipment
6.2.2.1 Tankers
6.2.3 Filters
6.2.4 Carbon dioxide
6.2.5 Process air
6.2.6 Packaging formats
6.2.6.1 Glass
6.2.6.2 Polyethylene terephthalate
6.2.6.3 Polyvinyl chloride
6.2.6.4 Cans
6.2.6.5 Cartons
6.2.6.6 Polycarbonate
6.2.6.7 High-density polyethylene
6.2.6.8 Closures
6.3 Labelling
6.4 Shelf-life, batch coding and traceability
6.5 Hygiene practices
6.5.1 Buildings and facilities
6.5.1.1 InternaI building surfaces
6.5.2 Layout and process flow
6.5.3 Ancillary facilities
6.5.4 Cleaning and disinfection
6.5.5 Personnel
6.5.6 Good manufacturing practice
7 Flling equipment
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Filling systems
7.3 Electropneumatic valve system
7.4 Non-carbonated filling system
7.5 Bottle handling
7.6 Filler configuration
7.7 A cIeaner environment for the filling process
7.7.1 'Clean' filler design
7.7.2 Clean and aseptic filling
7.7.3 Clean environment
7.7.4 Clean bottles and cIosures
7.8 Bottle inspection systems
7.9 Carbonation
7.10 Flavour dosing
7.11 Cleaning-in-place
7.11.1 Manual CIP system
7.11.2 Automated CIP system
8 Cleaning and disinfection in the bottled water industry
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Why cIean?
8.2 Cleaners (detergents)
8.2.1 Cleaning chemistry
8.2.2 The five factors
8.2.3 Types of cIeaners (detergents)
8.3 Sanitizers
8.3.1 Regulatory considerations
8.3.2 Types of sanitizers and their uses
8.3.3 Maximizing effectiveness
8.4 Types of cIeaning and basics
8.4.1 Cleaning dynamics
8.4.1.1 Manual method
8.4.1.2 Mechanical methods
8.4.2 Master sanitation schedule
8.4.3 Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures
8.5 Cleaning-in-place
8.5.1 Automated CIP
8.5.2 Types of CIP systems
8.5.3 CIP control and data acquisition
8.5.4 CIP program and programming
8.5.5 Hot CIP safety precautions
8.6 The Dos and Don'ts of cIeaning and disinfection
9 Quality management
9.1 Defining quality
9.2 Quality policy
9.3 Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point
9.4 Process control
9.4.1 Packaging materials in process
9.4.1.1 Bottle handling
9.4.1.2 CIosure application
9.4.1.3 Label application
9.4.1.4 Coding
9.4.1.5 Packing, wrapping and stacking
9.4.2 Product water in process
9.4.2.1 pH
9.4.2.2 Conductivity
9.4.2.3 Chlorine
9.4.2.4 Organoleptic evaluation
9.4.2.5 Filling volumes and levels
9.4.2.6 Carbonation
9.4.2.7 Reference samples
9.5 Quality assurance
9.5.1 Microbiological assessment
9.5.1.1 Microbiological analyses
9.5.1.2 Plant, equipment and packaging materials
9.5.2 Assessment during shelf-life
9.5.3 New product development
9.5.4 Sensory evaluation
9.5.5 Auditing
9.5.6 Calibration
9.5.7 Accreditation
9.6 Independent or government laboratories
9.7 Recognition of source
9.8 Industry networking
10 Bottled water coolers
10.1 Introduction
10.2 World market
10.2.1 Europe
10.2.2 Middle East
10.2.3 Asia
10.2.4 Australia and New Zealand
10.2.5 Central and South America
10.2.6 North America
10.3 Equipment development
10.3.1 Dispensers
10.3.2 Bottles
10.3.2.1 Wood and glass
10.3.2.2 Plastic containers
10.3.2.3 Bag-in-box containers
10.3.2.4 Caps
10.4 Water categories for water coolers
10.5 The bottIing process
10.6 Handling, transportation and service
10.7 Hygiene
10.8 Trade associations
11 Third-party auditing of bottled water operations
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Conduct of audits
11.3 Setting the criteria for the audit
11.4 The bottIing plant audit
11.4.1 Source
11.4.2 Exterior of bottling plant
11.4.3 Plant construction and design
11.4.4 Hygiene measures and controls
11.4.5 Plant operations
11.4.6 Equipment and procedures
11.4.7 Process and controls
11.4.8 Personnel
11.5 Conclusion of audit and follow-up actions
12 Microbiology of natural mineral waters
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Groundwater habitat
12.2.1 Physical component
12.2.2 Chemical component
12.2.3 Biological component: source of microflora
12.2.4 Limits of microbiological studies
12.2.5 Major microbiological groups
12.2.6 Nutrient limitations and starvation survival
12.2.7 The viable but nonculturable state
12.3 Bottle habitat
12.3.1 The bottle effect
12.3.2 Other factors influencing the plate count
12.3.3 Growth or resuscitation
12.3.4 Genetic diversity before and after bottIing
12.4 Microbial community
12.4.1 Algae, fungi and protozoa
12.4.2 Heterotrophic bacteria
12.4.3 Prosthecate bacteria
12.4.4 Pseudomonads, Acinetobacter, Alcaligenes
12.4.5 Cytophaga, FIavobacterium, FIexibacter
12.4.6 Gram-positive bacteria
12.5 Inhibitory effect of autochthonous bacteria
12.6 Assessing health risk from autochthonous microflora
12.6.1 Inoculation of the digestive tract of axenic mice
12.6.2 Randomized trials in infants
12.6.3 Virulence characteristics of bacteria
12.7 Assessment and management ofmicrobial health risks
12.7.1 Identifying microbial hazards in drinking water
12.7.2 Assessment of microbial risks
12.7.3 Management of microbial risks
12.7.3.1 Heterotrophic plate counts
12.7.3.2 Marker organisms and enteric pathogens
12.7.3.3 Pathogens growing in water
12.8 Conclusion
13 Microbiology of treated bottled water
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Source water protection and monitoring
13.3 Water treatment
13.4 Naturally occurring bacteria
13.5 Product safety
13.6 Summary
Index
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