Sensory evaluation of food : principles and practices [texte imprimé] / Harry T. Lawless ; Hildegarde Heymann  . -  2nd ed. . - New York : Springer, 2010 . - 1vol. (XXIII-596 p.) : ill. ; 26 cm.
ISBN : 978-1-4419-6487-8
Bibliogr. Index. Annexes
Langues : Anglais (eng)

Catégories :	Thésaurus Agro-alimentaire ANALYSE ORGANOLEPTIQUE ; PRODUIT ALIMENTAIRE ; TEXTURE ; COULEUR ; ANALYSE STATISTIQUE ; GOUT ; PHYSIOLOGIE ; ODORAT ; FLAVEUR ; ODEUR ; PANEL DE CONSOMMATEUR ; STATISTIQUE ; ANALYSE MULTIDIMENSIONNELLE Liste Plan de classement 7.1 (ANALYSE SENSORIELLE) [Classement Massy]
Résumé :	The field of sensory science has grown exponentially since the publication of the first edition of Sensory Evaluation of Food. Fifteen years ago, the journal Food Quality and Preference was fairly new. Now it holds an eminent position as a venue for research on sensory test methods (among many other topics). Knowledge of the intricate cellular processes in chemoreception, as well as their genetic basis has undergone nothing less than a revolution, culminating in the award of the Nobel Prize to Buck and Axel in 2004 for their discovery of the olfactory receptor gene super family. Advances in statistical methodology have accelerated as well. Sensometrics meetings are now vigorous and well-attended annual events. And yet, some things stay the same. Sensory testing will always involve human participants. But humans are tough measuring instruments to work with. They come with varying degrees of acumen, training, experiences, differing genetic equipment, sensory capabilities, and of course, different preferences. Human foibles and their associated error variance will continue to place a limitation on sensory tests and actionable results. Although methods continue to evolve, appreciation of the core principles of the field is the key to effective application of sensory test methods. This book has been expanded to reflect the advances in methodologies, theory, and analysis that have transpired in the last 15 years. The chapters are now divided into numbered subsections. This may be of assistance to educators who may wish to assign only certain critical sections to beginning students. In some of the opening sections instructors will find suggestions about which sections are key for fundamental understanding of that topic or method. In many chapters we have gone out on a limb and specified a “recommended procedure.” In cases where there are multiple options for procedure or analysis, we usually chose a simple solution over one that is more complex. This text attempts to be comprehensive, yet understandable to all students at the university level. All the major sensory test methods are illustrated and discussed, including discrimination, descriptive, and affective tests. Some chapters are devoted to special topics, such as thresholds, time-intensity methods, similarity testing, color, texture, sensory quality control, qualitative research methods, consumer test methods and questionnaires, shelf life testing, an introduction to multivariate statistical techniques, and strategic sensory research. The statistical appendix provides basic instruction in the common statistical analyses for sensory evaluation with worked examples.
Type de document :	Livre
Table des matières :	1 Introduction 1.1 Introduction and Overview 1.1.1 Definition 1.1.2 Measurement 1.2 Historical Landmarks and the Three Classes of Test Methods 1.2.1 Difference Testing 1.2.2 Descriptive Analyses 1.2.3 Affective Testing 1.2.4 The Central Dogma—Analytic Versus Hedonic Tests 1.3 Applications: Why Collect Sensory Data? 1.3.1 Differences from Marketing Research Methods 1.3.2 Differences from Traditional Product Grading Systems 1.4 Summary and Conclusions 2 Physiological and Psychological Foundations of Sensory Function 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Classical Sensory Testing and Psychophysical Methods 2.2.1 Early Psychophysics 2.2.2 The Classical Psychophysical Methods 2.2.3 Scaling and Magnitude Estimation 2.2.4 Critiques of Stevens 2.2.5 Empirical Versus Theory-Driven Functions 2.2.6 Parallels of Psychophysics and Sensory Evaluation 2.3 Anatomy and Physiology and Functions of Taste 2.3.1 Anatomy and Physiology 2.3.2 Taste Perception: Qualities 2.3.3 Taste Perception: Adaptation and Mixture Interactions 2.3.4 Individual Differences and Taste Genetics 2.4 Anatomy and Physiology and Functions of Smell 2.4.1 Anatomy and Cellular Function 2.4.2 Retronasal Smell 2.4.3 Olfactory Sensitivity and Specific Anosmia 2.4.4 Odor Qualities: Practical Systems 2.4.5 Functional Properties: Adaptation, Mixture Suppression, and Release 2.5 Chemesthesis 2.5.1 Qualities of Chemesthetic Experience 2.5.2 Physiological Mechanisms of Chemesthesis 2.5.3 Chemical “Heat” 2.5.4 Other Irritative Sensations and Chemical Cooling 2.5.5 Astringency 2.5.6 Metallic Taste 2.6 Multi-modal Sensory Interactions 2.6.1 Taste and Odor Interactions 2.6.2 Irritation and Flavor 2.6.3 Color–Flavor Interactions 2.7 Conclusions 3 Principles of Good Practice 3.1 Introduction 3.2 The Sensory Testing Environment 3.2.1 Evaluation Area 3.2.2 Climate Control 3.3 Test Protocol Considerations 3.3.1 Sample Serving Procedures 3.3.2 Sample Size 3.3.3 Sample Serving Temperatures 3.3.4 Serving Containers 3.3.5 Carriers 3.3.6 Palate Cleansing 3.3.7 Swallowing and Expectoration 3.3.8 Instructions to Panelists 3.3.9 Randomization and Blind Labeling 3.4 Experimental Design 3.4.1 Designing a Study 3.4.2 Design and Treatment Structures 3.5 Panelis Considerations 3.5.1 Incentives 3.5.2 Use of Human Subjects 3.5.3 Panelist Recruitment 3.5.4 Panelist Selection and Screening 3.5.5 Training of Panelists 3.5.6 Panelist Performance Assessment 3.6 Tabulation and Analysis 3.6.1 Data Entry Systems 3.7 Conclusion 4 Discrimination Testing 4.1 Discrimination Testing 4.2 Types of Discrimination Tests 4.2.1 Paired Comparison Tests 4.2.2 Triangle Tests 4.2.3 Duo–Trio Tests 4.2.4 n-Alternative Forced Choice (n-AFC) Methods 4.2.5 A-Not-Atests 4.2.6 Sorting Methods 4.2.7 The ABX Discrimination Task 4.2.8 Dual-Standard Test 4.3 Reputed Strengths and Weaknesses of Discrimination Tests 4.4 Data Analyses 4.4.1 Binomial Distributions and Tables 4.4.2 The Adjusted Chi-Square (χ2)Test 4.4.3 The Normal Distribution and the Z-Test on Proportion 4.5 Issues 4.5.1 The Power of the Statistical Test 4.5.2 Replications 4.5.3 Warm-Up Effects 4.5.4 Common Mistakes Made in the Interpretation of Discrimination Tests Appendix: A Simple Approach to Handling the A, Not-A, and Same/Different Tests 5 Similarity, Equivalence Testing, and Discrimination Theory 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Common Sense Approaches to Equivalence 5.3 Estimation of Sample Size and Test Power 5.4 How Big of a Difference Is Important? Discriminator Theory 5.5 Tests for Significant Similarity 5.6 The Two One-Sided Test Approach (TOST)and Interval Testing 5.7 Claim Substantiation 5.8 Models for Discrimination: Signal Detection Theory 5.8.1 The Problem 5.8.2 Experimental Setup 5.8.3 Assumptions and Theory 5.8.4 An Example 5.8.5 A Connection to Paired Comparisons Results Through the ROC Curve 5.9 Thurstonian Scaling 5.9.1 The Theory and Formulae 5.9.2 Extending Thurstone’s Model to Other Choice Tests 5.10 Extensions of the Thurstonian Methods, R-Index 5.10.1 Short Cut Signal Detection Methods 5.10.2 An Example 5.11 Conclusions Appendix: Non-Central t-Test for Equivalence of Scaled Data References 6 Measurement of Sensory Thresholds 6.1 Introduction: The Threshold Concept 6.2 Types of Thresholds: Definitions 6.3 Practical Methods: Ascending Forced Choice 6.4 Suggested Method for Taste/Odor/Flavor Detection Thresholds 6.4.1 Ascending Forced-Choice Method of Limits 6.4.2 Purpose of the Test 6.4.3 Preliminary Steps 6.4.4 Procedure 6.4.5 Data Analysis 6.4.6 Alternative Graphical Solution 6.4.7 Procedural Choices 6.5 Case Study/Worked Example 6.6 Other Forced Choice Methods 6.7 Probit Analysis 6.8 Sensory Adaptation, Sequential Effects, and Variability 6.9 Alternative Methods: Rated Difference, Adaptive Procedures, Scaling 6.9.1 Rated Difference from Control 6.9.2 Adaptive Procedures 6.9.3 Scaling as an Alternative Measure of Sensitivity 6.10 Dilution to Threshold Measures 6.10.1 Odor Units and Gas-Chromatography Olfactometry (GCO) 6.10.2 Scoville Units 6.11 Conclusions Appendix: MTBE Threshold Data for Worked Example 7 Scaling 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Some Theory 7.3 Common Methods of Scaling 7.3.1 Category Scales 7.3.2 Line Scaling 7.3.3 Magnitude Estimation 7.4 Recommended Practice and Practical Guidelines 7.4.1 Rule 1: Provide Sufficient Alternatives 7.4.2 Rule 2: The Attribute Must Be Understood 7.4.3 Rule 3: The Anchor Words Should Make Sense 7.4.4 To Calibrate or Not to Calibrate 7.4.5 A Warning: Grading and Scoring are Not Scaling 7.5 Variations—Other Scaling Techniques 7.5.1 Cross-Modal Matches and Variations on Magnitude Estimation 7.5.2 Category–Ratio (Labeled Magnitude) Scales 7.5.3 Adjustable Rating Techniques: Relative Scaling 7.5.4 Ranking 7.5.5 Indirect Scales 7.6 Comparing Methods: What is a Good Scale? 7.7 Issues 7.7.1 “Do People Make Relative Judgments” Should They See Their Previous Ratings? 7.7.2 Should Category Rating Scales Be Assigned Integer Numbers in Data Tabulation? Are They Interval Scales? 7.7.3 Is Magnitude Estimation a Ratio Scale or Simply a Scale with Ratio Instructions? 7.7.4 What is a “Valid” Scale? 7.8 Conclusions Appendix 1: Derivation of Thurstonian-Scale Values for the 9-Point Scale Appendix 2: Construction of Labeled Magnitude Scales 8 Time–Intensity Methods 8.1 Introduction 8.2 A Brief History 8.3 Variations on the Method 8.3.1 Discrete or Discontinuous Sampling 8.3.2 “Continuous” Tracking 8.3.3 Temporal Dominance Techniques 8.4 Recommended Procedures 8.4.1 Steps in Conducting a Time–intensity Study 8.4.2 Procedures 8.4.3 Recommended Analysis 8.5 Data Analysis Options 8.5.1 General Approaches 8.5.2 Methods to Construct or Describe Average Curves 8.5.3 Case Study: Simple Geometric Description 8.5.4 Analysis by Principal Components 8.6 Examples and Applications 8.6.1 Taste and Flavor Sensation Tracking 8.6.2 Trigeminal and Chemical/Tactile Sensations 8.6.3 Taste and Odor Adaptation 8.6.4 Texture and Phase Change 8.6.5 Flavor Release 8.6.6 Temporal Aspects of Hedonics 8.7 Issues 8.8 Conclusions 9 Context Effects and Biases in Sensory Judgment 9.1 Introduction: The Relative Nature of Human Judgment 9.2 Simple Contrast Effects 9.2.1 A Little Theory: Adaptation Level 9.2.2 Intensity Shifts 9.2.3 Quality Shifts 9.2.4 Hedonic Shifts 9.2.5 Explanations for Contrast 9.3 Range and Frequency Effects 9.3.1 A Little More Theory: Parducci’s Range and Frequency Principles 9.3.2 Range Effects 9.3.3 Frequency Effects 9.4 Biases 9.4.1 Idiosyncratic Scale Usage and Number Bias 9.4.2 Poulton’s Classifications 9.4.3 Response Range Effects 9.4.4 The Centering Bias 9.5 Response Correlation and Response Restriction 9.5.1 Response Correlation 9.5.2 “Dumping” Effects: Inflation Due to Response Restriction in Profiling 9.5.3 Over-Partitioning 9.6 Classical Psychological Errors and Other Biases 9.6.1 Errors in Structured Sequences: Anticipation and Habituation 9.6.2 The Stimulus Error 9.6.3 Positional or Order Bias 9.7 Antidotes 9.7.1 Avoid or Minimize 9.7.2 Randomization and Counterbalancing 9.7.3 Stabilization and Calibration 9.7.4 Interpretation 9.8 Conclusions 10 Descriptive Analysis 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Uses of Descriptive Analyses 10.3 Language and Descriptive Analysis 10.4 Descriptive Analysis Techniques 10.4.1 Flavor ProfileⓇ 10.4.2 Quantitative Descriptive AnalysisⓇ 10.4.3 Texture ProfileⓇ 10.4.4 Sensory SpectrumⓇ 10.5 Generic Descriptive Analysis 10.5.1 How to Do Descriptive Analysis in Three Easy Steps 10.5.2 Studies Comparing Different Conventional Descriptive Analysis Techniques 10.6 Variations on the Theme 10.6.1 Using Attribute Citation Frequencies Instead of Attribute Intensities 10.6.2 Deviation from Reference Method 10.6.3 Intensity Variation Descriptive Method 10.6.4 Combination of Descriptive Analysis and Time-Related Intensity Methods 10.6.5 Free Choice Profiling 10.6.6 Flash Profiling 11 Texture Evaluation 11.1 Texture Defined 11.2 Visual, Auditory, and Tactile Texture 11.2.1 Visual Texture 11.2.2 Auditory Texture 11.2.3 Tactile Texture 11.2.4 Tactile Hand Feel 11.3 Sensory Texture Measurements 11.3.1 Texture Profile Method 11.3.2 Other Sensory Texture Evaluation Techniques 11.3.3 Instrumental Texture Measurements and Sensory Correlations 11.4 Conclusions 12 Color and Appearance 12.1 Color and Appearance 12.2 What Is Color? 12.3 Vision 12.3.1 Normal Human Color Vision Variations 12.3.2 Human Color Blindness 12.4 Measurement of Appearance and Color Attributes 12.4.1 Appearance 12.4.2 Visual Color Measurement 12.5 Instrumental Color Measurement 12.5.1 Munsell Color Solid 12.5.2 Mathematical Color Systems 12.6 Conclusions 13 Preference Testing 13.1 Introduction—Consumer Sensory Evaluation 13.2 Preference Tests: Overview 13.2.1 The Basic Comparison 13.2.2 Variations 13.2.3 Some Cautions 13.3 Simple Paired Preference Testing 13.3.1 Recommended Procedure 13.3.2 Statistical Basis 13.3.3 Worked Example 13.3.4 Useful Statistical Approximations 13.3.5 The Special Case of Equivalence Testing 13.4 Non-forced Preference 13.5 Replicated Preference Tests 13.6 Replicated Non-forced Preference 13.7 Other Related Methods 13.7.1 Ranking 13.7.2 Analysis of Ranked Data 13.7.3 Best–Worst Scaling 13.7.4 Rated Degree of Preference and Other Options 13.8 Conclusions Appendix 1: Worked Example of the Ferris k-Visit Repeated Preference Test Including the No-Preference Option Appendix 2: The “Placebo” Preference Test Appendix 3: Worked Example of Multinomial Approach to Analyzing Data with the No-Preference Option 14 Acceptance Testing 14.1 Introduction: Scaled Liking Versus Choice 14.2 Hedonic Scaling: Quantification of Acceptability 14.3 Recommended Procedure 14.3.1 Steps 14.3.2 Analysis 14.3.3 Replication 14.4 Other Acceptance Scales 14.4.1 Line Scales 14.4.2 Magnitude Estimation 14.4.3 Labeled Magnitude Scales 14.4.4 Pictorial Scales and Testing with Children 14.4.5 Adjustable Scales 14.5 Just-About-Right Scales 14.5.1 Description 14.5.2 Limitations 14.5.3 Variations on Relative-to-Ideal Scaling 14.5.4 Analysis of JAR Data 14.5.5 Penalty Analysis or “Mean Drop” 14.5.6 Other Problems and Issues with JAR Scales 14.6 Behavioral and Context-Related Approaches 14.6.1 Food Action Rating Scale (FACT) 14.6.2 Appropriateness Scales 14.6.3 Acceptor Set Size 14.6.4 Barter Scales 14.7 Conclusions 15 Consumer Field Tests and Questionnaire Design 15.1 Sensory Testing Versus Concept Testing 15.2 Testing Scenarios: Central Location, Home Use 15.2.1 Purpose of the Tests 15.2.2 Consumer Models 15.2.3 Central Location Tests 15.2.4 Home Use Tests (HUT) 15.3 Practical Matters in Conducting Consumer Field Tests 15.3.1 Tasks and Test Design 15.3.2 Sample Size and Stratification 15.3.3 Test Designs 15.4 Interacting with Field Services 15.4.1 Choosing Agencies, Communication, and Test Specifications 15.4.2 Incidence, Cost, and Recruitment 15.4.3 Some Tips: Do’s and Don’ts 15.4.4 Steps in Testing with Research Suppliers 15.5 Questionnaire Design 15.5.1 Types of Interviews 15.5.2 Questionnaire Flow: Order of Questions 15.5.3 Interviewing 15.6 Rules of Thumb for Constructing Questions 15.6.1 General Principles 15.6.2 Brevity 15.6.3 Use Plain Language 15.6.4 Accessibility of the Information 15.6.5 Avoid Vague Questions 15.6.6 Check for Overlap and Completeness 15.6.7 Do Not Lead the Respondent 15.6.8 Avoid Ambiguity and Double Questions 15.6.9 Be Careful in Wording: Present Both Alternatives 15.6.10 Beware of Halos and Horns 15.6.11 Pre-test 15.7 Other Useful Questions: Satisfaction, Agreement, and Open-Ended Questions 15.7.1 Satisfaction 15.7.2 Likert (Agree–Disagree) Scales 15.7.3 Open-Ended Questions 15.8 Conclusions Appendix 1: Sample Test Specification Sheet Appendix 2: Sample Screening Questionnaire Appendix 3: Sample Product Questionnaire 16 Qualitative Consumer Research Methods 16.1 Introduction 16.1.1 Resources, Definitions, and Objectives 16.1.2 Styles of Qualitative Research 16.1.3 Other Qualitative Techniques 16.2 Characteristics of Focus Groups 16.2.1 Advantages 16.2.2 Key Requirements 16.2.3 Reliability and Validity 16.3 Using Focus Groups in Sensory Evaluation 16.4 Examples, Case Studies 16.4.1 Case Study 1: Qualitative Research Before Conjoint Measurement in New Product Development 16.4.2 Case Study 2: Nutritional and Health Beliefs About Salt 16.5 Conducting Focus Group Studies 16.5.1 A Quick Overview 16.5.2 A Key Requirement: Developing Good Questions 16.5.3 The Discussion Guide and Phases of the Group Interview 16.5.4 Participant Requirements, Timing, Recording 16.6 Issues in Moderating 16.6.1 Moderating Skills 16.6.2 Basic Principles: Non direction, Full Participation, and Coverage of Issues 16.6.3 Assistant Moderators and Co-moderators 16.6.4 Debriefing: Avoiding Selective Listening and Premature Conclusions 16.7 Analysis and Reporting 16.7.1 General Principles 16.7.2 Suggested Method (“Sorting/Clustering Approach”), also Called Classical Transcript Analysis 16.7.3 Report Format 16.8 Alternative Procedures and Variations of the Group Interview 16.8.1 Groups of Children, Telephone Interviews, Internet-Based Groups 16.8.2 Alternatives to Traditional Questioning 16.9 Conclusions Appendix: Sample Report Group Report Boil-in-bag Pasta Project Followup Groups 17 Quality Control and Shelf-Life (Stability) Testing 17.1 Introduction: Objectives and Challenges 17.2 A Quick Look at Traditional Quality Control 17.3 Methods for Sensory QC 17.3.1 Cuttings: A Bad Example 17.3.2 In–Out (Pass/Fail)System 17.3.3 Difference from Control Ratings 17.3.4 Quality Ratings with Diagnostics 17.3.5 Descriptive Analysis 17.3.6 A Hybrid Approach: Quality Rating with Diagnostics 17.3.7 The Multiple Standards Difference Test 17.4 Recommended Procedure: Difference Scoring with Key Attribute Scales 17.5 The Importance of Good Practice 17.6 Historical Footnote: Expert Judges and Quality Scoring 17.6.1 Standardized Commodities 17.6.2 Example 1: Dairy Product Judging 17.6.3 Example 2: Wine Scoring 17.7 Program Requirements and Program Development 17.7.1 Desired Features of a Sensory QC System 17.7.2 Program Development and Management Issues 17.7.3 The Problem of Low Incidence 17.8 Shelf-Life Testing 17.8.1 Basic Considerations 17.8.2 Cutoff Point 17.8.3 Test Designs 17.8.4 Survival Analysis and Hazard Functions 17.8.5 Accelerated Storage 17.9 Summary and Conclusions Appendix 1: Sample Screening Tests for Sensory Quality Judges Appendix 2: Survival/Failure Estimates from a Series of Batches with Known Failure Times Appendix 3: Arrhenius Equation and Q10 Modeling 18 Data Relationships and Multivariate Applications 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Overview of Multivariate Statistical Techniques 18.2.1 Principal Component Analysis 18.2.2 Multivariate Analysis of Variance 18.2.3 Discriminant Analysis (Also Known as Canonical Variate Analysis) 18.2.4 Generalized Procrustes Analysis 18.3 Relating Consumer and Descriptive Data Through Preference Mapping 18.3.1 Internal Preference Mapping 18.3.2 External Preference Mapping 18.4 Conclusions 19 Strategic Research 19.1 Introduction 19.1.1 Avenues for Strategic Research 19.1.2 Consumer Contact 19.2 Competitive Surveillance 19.2.1 The Category Review 19.2.2 Perceptual Mapping 19.2.3 Multivariate Methods: PCA 19.2.4 Multi-dimensional Scaling 19.2.5 Cost-Efficient Methods for Data Collection: Sorting 19.2.6 Vector Projection 19.2.7 Cost-Efficient Methods for Data Collection: Projective Mapping, aka Napping 19.3 Attribute Identification and Classification 19.3.1 Drivers of Liking 19.3.2 The Kano Model 19.4 Preference Mapping Revisited 19.4.1 Types of Preference Maps 19.4.2 Preference Models: Vectors Versus Ideal Points 19.5 Consumer Segmentation 19.6 Claim Substantiation Revisited 19.7 Conclusions 19.7.1 Blind Testing, New Coke, and the Vienna Philharmonic 19.7.2 The Sensory Contribution
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