Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Process Diagrams
1.3 Material and Energy Balances
1.3.1 Material Balances
1.3.2 Energy Balances
1.4 Engineering Units
1.5 Engineering Calculations
1.5.1 Engineering Symbols
1.5.2 Dimensions and Dimensionless Numbers
1.5.3 Notation of Numbers
1.5.4 Engineering Calculations
Application Examples
Material Balance
Energy Balances
Total Energy Requir[...]
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Process Diagrams
1.3 Material and Energy Balances
1.3.1 Material Balances
1.3.2 Energy Balances
1.4 Engineering Units
1.5 Engineering Calculations
1.5.1 Engineering Symbols
1.5.2 Dimensions and Dimensionless Numbers
1.5.3 Notation of Numbers
1.5.4 Engineering Calculations
Application Examples
Material Balance
Energy Balances
Total Energy Requirements
Actual Energy Requirements
Chapter 2 Transport Phenomena
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Steady-State Transport
2.2.1 Transport Rate Equations
2.2.1.1 Heat Transport
2.2.1.2 Mass Transport
2.2.1.3 Momentum Transport
2.3 Unsteady-State Transport
2.3.1 Mathematical Modeling
2.3.1.1 Analytical Solution
2.3.1.2 Generalized Chart Solution
2.3.1.3 Numerical /Computer Solution
2.4 Interface Transfer
2.4.1 Transfer Coefficients
2.4.2 Dimensionless Numbers
2.4.2.1 Momentum Transport (Re, Fr,f)
2.4.2.2 Heat Transfer (Bi, Fo, Gr, Gz, Le, Nu, Pe, Pr, St)
2.4.2.3 Mass Transfer (Bi, Fi, Le, Pe, Sc, Sh)
Chapter 3 Thermodynamics and Kinetics
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Principles of Thermodynamics
3.2.1 Definitions
3.2.2 First Law
3.2.3 Second Law
3.2.4 Calculation of Entropy Change
3.2.5 Thermodynamic Flow Processes
3.2.5.1 Compression Processes
3.2.5.2 Expansion Processes
3.2.5.3 Steam Power Cycle
3.2.5.4 Carnot Cycle
3.2.5.5 Refrigeration and Heat Pumps
3.2.6 Gas Compression
3.3 Phase Equilibria
3.3.1 Vapor-Liquid Equilibria
3.3.2 Vapor-Solid Equilibria
3.3.3 Water Phase Equilibria
3.4 Food Kinetics
3.4.1 Chemical Reactions
3.4.2 Microbial Kinetics
3.4.2.1 Microbial Growth
3.4.2.2 Microbial Inactivation
Chapter 4 Overview of Food Process Technology
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Food Preservation
4.2.1 Minimal Processing and Hurdle Technology
4.2.2 Refrigeration
4.2.3 Freezing
4.2.4 Thermal Processing
4.2.5 Concentration and Dehydration
4.2.6 Novel Food Processes
4.3 Food Manufacturing
4.4 Food Ingredients
4.5 Food Product Engineering
Chapter 5 Engineering Properties of Foods
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Physical Properties
5.2.1 Density and Porosity
5.2.2 Thermal Properties
5.2.2.1 Nonfrozen Foods
5.2.2.2 Frozen Foods
5.2.3 Mechanical Properties
5.2.3.1 Static Tests
5.2.3.2 Dynamic Tests
5.2.3.3 Empirical Tests
5.2.4 Electrical Properties
5.2.5 Acoustic Properties
5.2.5.1 Sound Propagation
5.2.5.2 Food Applications
5.2.5.3 Doppler Velocimetry
5.2.6 Colorimetric Properties
5.2.7 Surface Properties
5.2.7.1 Introduction
5.2.7.2 The Gibbs Equation
5.2.7.3 Liquids
5.2.7.4 Solids
5.3 Transport Properties
5.3.1 Transport Properties of Gases and Liquids
5.3.2 Rheological Properties
5.3.3 Thermal Transport Properties
5.3.4 Mass Transport Properties
5.3.4.1 Mass Diffusivity
5.3.4.2 Permeability
Chapter 6 Fluid Flow Operations
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Food Rheology
6.2.1 Capillary Tube Viscometry
6.2.2 Rotational Viscometry
6.2.3 Velocity Distribution
6.2.4 Reynolds Number
6.3 Mechanical Energy Balances
6.3.1 Mechanical Flow Systems
6.3.2 Friction in Piping Systems
6.3.3 Friction in Non-Newtonian Fluids
6.3.4 Rabinowitsch-Mooney Equation
6.4 Piping Systems
6.4.1 Pipes and Tubes
6.4.2 Pipe Fittings
6.5 Film and Oren Channel Flows
6.5.1 Film Flow
6.5.2 Open Channel Flow
6.6 Flow Measurement
6.6.1 DifferentiaI Pressure Flow Meters
6.6.1.1 U-Tube Manometer
6.6.1.2 Orifice Meter
6.6.1.3 Venturi Meter
6.6.1.4 Pitot Tube
6.6.2 Mechanical Flow Meters
6.6.2.1 Rotameters
6.6.2.2 Positive Displacement Flow Meters
6.6.3 Electrical and Magnetic Flow Meters
6.6.3.1 Hot Wire Anemometer
6.6.3.2 Magnetic and Acoustic Flow Meters
6.6.4 Weir Flow Meters
6.7 Pumping Equipment
6.7.1 Pumps
6.7.1.1 CentrifugaI Pumps
6.7.1.2 Positive Displacement Pumps
6.7.1.3 Rotary Pumps
6.7.2 Pump Characteristics
6.7.2.1 Pump Curves
6.7.2.2 Net Positive Suction Head
6.7.2.3 Pump Selection
6.7.3 Fans and Blowers
6.7.4 Vacuum Pumps
Chapter 7 Mechanical Processing Operations
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Particle Characteristics
7.2.1 Particle Size and Shape
7.2.2 Particle Size Distribution
7.2.3 Particle Size Analysis
7.2.3.1 Methods of Measurement
7.2.3.2 Sieve Analysis
7.3 Size Reduction
7.3.1 Introduction
7.3.2 Cutting
7.3.2.1 Introduction
7.3.2.2 Cutting Tools
7.3.2.3 Portable Cutting Tools
7.3.2.4 Cutting Equipment
7.3.3 Crushing and Grinding Operations
7.3.3.1 Introduction
7.3.3.2 Crushers
7.3.3.3 Grinders
7.3.4 Droplet Formation
7.3.4.1 Pressure Nozzles
7.3.4.2 Rotary Nozzles
7.3.4.3 Two-Fluid Nozzles
7.4 Size Enlargement
7.4.1 Introduction
7.4.2 Free Structuring Agglomeration
7.4.3 Pressure Agglomeration
7.5 Mixing and Forming
7.5.1 Fluid Mixing
7.5.1.1 Agitated Tanks
7.5.1.2 Industrial Mixers
7.5.2 Food Mixing
7.5.3 Homogenization
7.5.4 Solids Mixing
7.5.5 Forming Operations
7.5.6 Extrusion
7.6 Conveying of Solids
7.6.1 Pneumatic Conveying
7.6.2 Hydraulic Conveying
7.6.3 Mechanical Conveying
7.6.3.1 Belt Conveyors
7.6.3.2 Roll and Skate Wheel Conveyors
7.6.3.3 Chain Conveyors
7.6.3.4 Bucket Elevators
7.6.3.5 Screw Conveyors
7.6.4 Hygienic Considerations
7.7 Mechanical Separations
7.7.1 Introduction
7.7.2 Classification Operations
7.7.2.1 Grading
7.7.2.2 Sorting
7.7.3 Solid/Solid Separations
7.7.3.1 Screening
7.7.3.2 Fluid Classification
7.7.4 SolidiLiquid Separations
7.7.4.1 Screening
7.7.4.2 Sedimentation
7.7.4.3 Cake Filtration
7.7.4.4 Depth Filtration
7.7.4.5 Sterile Filtration
7.7.4.6 Filtration of Clear Food Liquids
7.7.4.7 Centrifugation
7.7.4.8 Mechanical Expression
7.7.5 Solid/Air Separations
7.7.5.1 Cyclone Separators
7.7.5.2 Bag Filters
7.7.5.3 Air Filters
7.7.5.4 Electrical Filters
7.7.5.5 Wet Scrubbers
7.7.6 Removal of Food Parts
7.7.6.1 Introduction
7.7.6.2 Removal of Undesired Food Parts
7.7.6.3 Removal of Desired Food Parts
7.7.6.4 Food Cleaning Operations
Chapter 8 Heat Transfer Operations
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Heat Transfer Coefficients
8.2.1 Plane Walls
8.2.2 Cylindrical Walls
8.2.3 Natural Convection
8.2.4 Forced Circulation
8.2.5 Falling Films
8.2.6 Condensing Vapors
8.2.7 Boiling Liquids
8.2.8 Radiation Heat Transfer
8.2.9 Combined Convection and Radiation
8.2.10 Heat Transfer Factor
8.3 Heat Exchangers
8.3.1 Heat Transfer Rate
8.3.2 Double-Pipe Heat Exchangers
8.3.3 Heat Transfer Coefficients
8.3.4 Fouling of Heat Exchangers
8.3.5 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
8.3.5.1 Heat Transfer Surface
8.3.5.2 Heat Exchanger Structure/Operation
8.3.6 Plate Heat Exchangers
8.3.7 Agitated Heat Exchangers
8.3.7.1 Scraped-Surface Heat Exchangers
8.3.7.2 Agitated-Vessel Heat Exchangers
8.3.7.3 Batch Heating
8.3.8 Fin Heat Exchangers
8.3.9 Direct Heat Transfer
8.4 Electrical /Radiation Heating
8.4.1 Ohmic Heating
8.4.2 Microwave and Dielectric Heating
8.4.3 Infrared Heating
8.4.4 Solar Heating
Application Examples
Heat Transfer Coefficient
Heat Transfer Surface
Heat Transfer Coefficients
Plate Heat Exchanger
Chapter 9 Thermal Processing Operations
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Thermal Preservation Processes
9.2.1 Introduction
9.2.2 Kinetics of Thermal Inactivation
9.2.2.1 Inactivation of Microorganisms and Enzymes
9.2.2.2 Heat Damage to Food Components
9.2.3 Heat Transfer Considerations
9.2.3.1 Heat Transfer Coefficients
9.2.3.2 Unsteady-State Heat Transfer
9.2.4 ln-Container Sterilization
9.2.4.1 General Method
9.2.4.2 Formula Method
9.2.4.3 Commercial Sterility
9.2.4.4 ln-Container Sterilizers
9.2.5 Continuous-Flow Sterilization
9.2.5.1 Sterilization Flowsheet
9.2.5.2 Sterilization Equipment
9.2.5.3 Holding Tube
9.2.5.4 Food Suspensions
9.2.6 Pasteurization
9.2.6.1 Continuous-Flow Pasteurization
9.2.6.2 Batch Pasteurization
9.2.7 Blanching
9.3 Thermal Treatment Processes
9.3.1 Baking
9.3.1.1 Heat Transfer Considerations
9.3.1.2 Baking Ovens
9 .3.2 Roasting
9.3.3 Frying
Chapter 10 Evaporation Operations
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Heat Transfer
10.2.1 Physical Properties
10.2.2 Heat Transfer Coefficients
10.2.3 Fouling in Evaporators
10.2.4 Evaporation of Fruit Juices
10.3 Design of Evaporators
10.3.1 Material and Energy Balances
10.3.2 Short Residence-Time Evaporators
10.3.2.1 Film Evaporators
10.3.2.2 Long-Tube Vertical Evaporators
10.3.2.3 Plate Evaporators
10.3.2.4 Agitated Film Evaporators
10.3.2.5 CentrifugaI Film Evaporators
10.3.3 Long Residence-Time Evaporators
10.3.3.1 Jacketed Vessel Evaporators
10.3.3.2 Short Tube Evaporators
10.3.3.3 Forced Circulation Evaporators
10.4 Energy-Saving Evaporation Systems
10.4.1 Multiple Effect Evaporators
10.4.2 Vapor Recompression Evaporators
10.4.3 Combined Reverse Osmosis/Evaporation
10.4.4 Water Desalination
10.5 Auxiliary Equipment
10.5.1 Vapor-Liquid Separators
10.5.2 Condensers
10.5.3 Vacuum Systems
Chapter 11 Drying Operations
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Heat and Mass Transfer
11.2.1 Heat and Mass Transfer Coefficients
11.2.2 Heat and Mass Transfer Analogy
11.3 Psychrometrics
11.3.1 Water-Air Mixtures
11.3.2 Psychrometric Charts
11.4 Drying Kinetics
11.4.1 Drying Rates
11.4.2 Drying Constant
11.4.3 Moisture Diffusivity
11.4.4 Empirical Model
11.5 Drying Technology
11.5.1 Process Technology
11.6 Dryer Design
11.6.1 Design of Industrial Dryers
11.6.2 Selection ofIndustrial Dryers
11.6.3 Material and Enerergy Balances
11.7 Drying Equipment
11.7.1 Sun Drying
11.7.2 Solar Dryers
11.7.3 Silo and Bin Dryers
11.7.4 Tray Dryers
11.7.5 Tunnel or Truck Dryers
11.7.6 Belt Dryers
11.7.7 Rotary Dryers
11.7.8 Fluidized Bed Dryers
11.7.9 Spouted Bed Dryers
11.7.10 Pneumatic or Flash Dryers
11.7.11 Spray Dryers
11.7.12 Drum Dryers
11.7.13 Vacuum Dryers
11.7.14 Freeze Dryers
11.7.15 Agitated Dryers
11.7.16 Microwave Dryers
11.7.17 Impingement Dryers
11.7.18 Special Dryers
11.7.18.1 CentrifugaI Dryers
11.7.18.2 Explosion-Puff Drying
11.7.18.3 Foam-Mat Drying
11.7.18.4 Acoustic Dryers
11.8 Energy Efficiency in Drying
11.8.1 Heat Sources for Drying
11.8.2 Heat Recovery
Chapter 12 Refrigeration and Freezing Operations
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Cold Generation
12.2.1 Mechanical Compression
12.2.1.1 Refrigeration Cycles
12.2.1.2 Coefficient of Performance
12.2.1.3 Shortcut Modeling
12.2.1.4 Refrigerants
12.2.1.5 Compressors
12.2.1.6 Evaporators and Condensers
12.2.1.7 Capacity Control
12.2.2 Cryogenic Liquids
12.2.3 Ice Cooling
12.2.4 Vacuum Cooling
12.3 Cooling of Foods
12.3.1 Cooling Load
12.3.2 Cooling Equipment
12.3.2.1 Liquid Foods
12.3.2.2 Solid Foods
12.4 Food Freezing
12.4.1 Freezing Time
12.4.2 Heat Load
12.4.3 Freezing Equipment
12.4.3.1 Air Freezing Equipment
12.4.3.2 Cold Surface Freezers
12.4.3.3 Heat Exchanger Freezers
12.4.3.4 Frozen Pellets
12.4.3.5 Cryogenic Liquids
12.4.4 Thawing of Frozen Foods
12.4.4.1 Convective Thawing
12.4.4.2 Vacuum Thawing
12.4.4.3 Contact Thawing
12.4.4.4 Electrical Thawing
12.5 Cold Storage of Foods
12.5.1 Cold Storage Rooms
12.5.2 Cold Storage Conditions
12.5.3 CA Storage
Application Examples
Technical Data
Application to Apple Storage
Process Data
Calculations
Apples in Storage Room
Physical Properties of Green Peas
Ice Properties
Refrigeration Specifications
Fluidized Bed Specifications
Fluidized Bed Operation
Calculated Results
Chapter 13 Mass Transfer Operations
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Distillation
13.2.1 Vapor/Liquid Equilibria
13.2.1.1 Activity Coefficients and Relative Volatility
13.2.1.2 Nonideal Mixtures and Azeotropes
13.2.1.3 Volatile Food Aromas
13.2.2 Simple Distillations
13.2.2.1 DifferentiaI Distillation
13.2.2.2 Steam Distillation
13.2.3 Fractional Distillation
13.2.3.1 Distillation Columns
13.2.3.2 Equilibrium Stages
13.2.3.3 Column Efficiency
13.2.4 Food Distillations
13.2.4.1 Ethanol Distillation
13.2.4.2 Aroma Recovery
13.2.4.3 Spinning Cone Stripping Column
13.2.5 Molecular Distillation
13.3 Solvent Extraction
13.3.1 Liquid /Liquid and Liquid/Solid Equilibria
13.3.2 Equilibrium Stages
13.3.3 Mass Transfer Considerations
13.3.4 Solvent Extraction Equipment
13.4 Gas/Liquid Absorption
13.4.1 Gas/Liquid Equilibria
13.4.2 Absorption Operations
13.4.2.1 Agitated Vessels
13.4.2.2 Tray Columns
13.4.2.3 Packed Towers
13.4.2.4 Gas Scrubbers
13.5 Adsorption and Ion Exchange
13.5.1 Adsorption Equilibria and Mass Transfer
13.5.2 Adsorption Equipment
13.5.3 Ion Exchange Equipment
13.5.4 Food Applications of Adsorption
13.5.4.1 Water Treatment
13.5.4.2 Recovery of Valu able Components
13.5.4.3 Removal of Undesirable Components
13.6 Crystallization from Solution
13.6.1 Solubility in Crystallization
13.6.2 Nucleation and Mass Transfer
13.6.3 Commercial Crystallizers
13.7 Food Packaging
Chapter 14 Novel Food Process Operations
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Membrane Separation Operations
14.2.1 Introduction
14.2.2 Mass Transfer Aspects
14.2.3 Membrane Modules
14.2.4 Membrane Separation Systems
14.2.4.1 Pressure-Driven Separations
14.2.4.2 Special Membrane Separations
14.2.5 Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration
14.2.5.1 Microfiltration
14.2.5.2 Ultrafiltration
14.2.6 Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration
14.2.6.1 RO Systems
14.2.6.2 Food Applications of RO
14.3 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
14.3.1 Supercritical Fluids
14.3.2 SCF Extraction Operations
14.3.3 Food Applications of SCF Extraction
14.4 Freeze Concentration
14.4.1 Crystallization of Ice
14.4.2 Ice Separation
14.4.3 Food Applications
14.5 Nonthermal Food Preservation
14.5.1 Food Irradiation
14.5.1.1 Radiation Dosages
14.5.1.2 Food Irradiation Equipment
14.5.2 High-Pressure Processing
14.5.3 Pulsed Electric Field Processing
Chapter 15 Elements of Food Packaging Operations
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Packaging Materials
15.2.1 Metals
15.2.2 Glass
15.2.3 Paper and Cardboard
15.2.4 Plastics
15.3 Preparation of Food Containers
15.3.1 Forming of Packages
15.3.1.1 Metal Containers
15.3.1.2 Cartons and Cardboard Packages
15.3.1.3 Film-Based Packages
15.3.2 Filling of Packages
15.3.3 Closing of Packages
15.3.4 Processing of Packages
15.3.4.1 Conventional Thermal Processing
15.3.4.2 Aseptic Packaging
15.4 Handling of Food Packages
Chapter 16 Spreadsheet Applications
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Shell and Thbes Heat Exchanger
16.2.1 Problem Formulation
16.2.2 Problem Solution
16.2.3 Excel Implementation
16.3 Psychrometric Calculations
16.3.1 Problem Formulation
16.3.2 Problem Solution
16.3.3 Excel Implementation
16.4 Psychrometric Chart
16.4.1 Problem Formulation
16.4.2 Problem Solution
16.4.3 Excel Implementation
16.5 Calculations on Psychrometric Chart
16.5.1 Problem Formulation
16.5.2 Problem Solution
16.5.3 Excel Implementation
16.6 Isotherms
16.6.1 Problem Formulation
16.6.2 Excel Implementation
16.7 Fitting Rheologieal Data for Chocolate
16.7.1 Problem Formulation
16.7.2 Excel Implementation
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