PART 1 Flavor Chemistry
Chapter 1 An Overview of Flavor Perception
1.1 Flavor Perception
1.2 Taste Perception
1.2.1 Anatomy of Taste
1.2.2 Synopses of Tastes
1.3 Chemesthesis
1.3.1 Chemesthetic Responses
1.3.2 Tactile Response
1.4 Olfaction
1.4.1 Anatomy of Olfaction
1.4.2 Odor Receptor Functioning
1.4.3 Signal Encoding
1.5 Summary
References
Chapter 2 Flavor and the Information Age
PART 1 Flavor Chemistry
Chapter 1 An Overview of Flavor Perception
1.1 Flavor Perception
1.2 Taste Perception
1.2.1 Anatomy of Taste
1.2.2 Synopses of Tastes
1.3 Chemesthesis
1.3.1 Chemesthetic Responses
1.3.2 Tactile Response
1.4 Olfaction
1.4.1 Anatomy of Olfaction
1.4.2 Odor Receptor Functioning
1.4.3 Signal Encoding
1.5 Summary
References
Chapter 2 Flavor and the Information Age
2.1 Introduction
2.2 History of Flavor Literature
2.3 Journals
2.4 Professional Societies
2.5 Internet
2.5.1 InternaI Communication
2.5.2 External Communication
2.5.3 General Information About the Industry
2.5.4 Societies/Organizations
2.5.5 Internet Searches
2.5.6 Literature Retrieval
2.5.7 Locating Materials and Equipment Suppliers
2.5.8 Idea Generators/Promotions
2.5.9 Competition
2.5.10 How to Use the Internet Effectively
2.6 Summary
References
Chapter 3 Flavor Analysis
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Aroma Compounds
3.2.1 Introduction
3.2.2 Sample Selection/Preparation
3.2.3 Principles of Aroma Isolation
3.2.3.1 Introduction
3.2.3.2 Solubility
3.2.3.3 Sorptive Extraction
3.2.3.4 Volatility
3.2.4 Methods of Aroma Isolation
3.2.4.1 Static Headspace
3.2.4.2 Headspace Concentration Methods (Dynamic Headspace)
3.2.4.3 Distillation Methods
3.2.4.4 Solvent Extraction
3.2.4.5 Sorptive Extraction
3.2.4.6 Concentration for Analysis
3.2.4.7 Aroma Isolation Summary
3.2.5 Analysis of Aroma Isolates
3.2.5.1 Prefractionation
3.2.5.2 Gas Chromatography
3.2.5.3 GC/Olfactometry (GC/O) or GC-MS/Olfactometry (GC-MS/O)
3.2.5.4 Mass Spectrometry
3.2.6 Specific Analysis
3.2.6.1 Key Components in Foods
3.2.6.2 Aroma Release During Eating
3.2.7 Electronic Noses
3.3 Taste Compounds (Nonvolatiles)
3.3.1 Introduction
3.3.1.1 Taste Compounds
3.3.1.2 Other Nonvolatile Components of Foods
3.3.2 The Analysis of Taste Substances
3.3.2.1 Sweeteners
3.3.2.2 Salt
3.3.2.3 Acidulants
3.3.2.4 Umami
3.3.2.5 Bitter Substances
References
Chapter 4 Flavor Formation in Fruits and Vegetables
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Biogenesis of Fruit Aroma
4.2.1 Aroma Compounds from Fatty Acid Metabolism
4.2.2 Aroma Compounds from Amino Acid Metabolism
4.2.3 Aroma Compounds Formed from Carbohydrate Metabolism
4.3 Biogenesis of Vegetable Aroma
4.3.1 The Role of Lipids in Vegetable Aroma Formation
4.3.2 Aroma Compound Formation from Cysteine Sulfoxide Derivatives
4.3.3 Glucosinolates as Aroma Precursors in Vegetables
4.3.4 Additional Pathway for Vegetable Flavor Formation
4.4 Glycosidically Bound Aroma Compounds
4.4.1 Glycoside Structure
4.4.2 Freeing of Glycosidically Bound Flavor Compounds
4.5 Location of Flavor in Plant
4.6 Influence of Genetics, Nutrition, Environment, Maturity, and Storage on Development of Flavor
4.6.1 Plant Products
4.6.1.1 Genetics
4.6.1.2 Environmental and Cultural Effects on Flavor Development on the Plant
4.6.1.3 Influence of Maturity and Postharvest Storage on Flavor Development off the Plant
4.7 Animal Products
4.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 5 Changes in Food Flavor Due to Processing
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Maillard Reaction
5.2.1 General Overview of the Maillard Reaction
5.2.2 Pathways for Flavor Formation via the Maillard Reaction
5.2.3 Factors Influencing the Maillard Reaction
5.2.3.1 Heating Time/Temperature
5.2.3.2 Influence of System Composition
5.2.3.3 Influence of Water Activity
5.2.3.4 Influence of pH
5.2.3.5 Influence of Buffer/Salts
5.2.3.6 Influence of Oxidation/Reduction State
5.2.4 Kinetics of the Maillard Reaction and Flavor
5.2.4.1 Pyrazines
5.2.4.2 Oxygen-Containing Heterocyclic Compounds
5.2.4.3 Sulfur-Containing Compounds
5.2.4.4 Miscellaneous Compounds
5.2.4.5 Summary
5.2.5 Flavor Formation via the Maillard Reaction
5.2.5.1 Carbonyl Compounds
5.2.5.2 Nitrogen-Containing Heterocyclic Compounds
5.2.5.3 Oxygen-Containing Heterocyclic Compounds
5.2.5.4 Sulfur-Containing Heterocyclic Compounds
5.2.5.5 Oxygen-Containing Compounds
5.3 Flavors from Lipids
5.3.1 Deep Fat Fried Flavor
5.3.2 Lactones
5.3.3 Secondary Reactions
5.4 Flavors Formed via Fermentation
5.4.1 Esters
5.4.2 Acids
5.4.3 CarbonyIs
5.4.4 Alcohols
5.4.5 Terpenes
5.4.6 Lactones
5.4.7 Pyrazines
5.4.8 Sulfur Compounds
5.4.9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6 Flavor Release from Foods
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Lipid/Flavor Interactions
6.2.1 Effect of Fat: Flavor Interactions on Aroma
6.2.1.1 Equilibrium Conditions
6.2.1.2 Dynamic Conditions
6.2.2 Effect of Fat: Flavor Interactions on Taste
6.3 Carbohydrate: Flavor Interactions
6.3.1 Simple Sugars: Aroma Interactions
6.3.2 High Potency Sweeteners: Aroma Interactions
6.3.3 Complex Carbohydrate (Polysaccharide): Aroma Interactions
6.3.3.1 Chemical Interactions
6.3.3.2 Resistance to Mass Transfer
6.3.4 Carbohydrate: Taste Interactions
6.4 Protein: Flavor Interactions
6.4.1 Protein: Aroma Interactions
6.4.1.1 Chemical Interactions
6.4.1.2 Resistance to Mass Transfer
6.4.2 Protein Hydrolysate: Aroma Interactions
6.4.3 Protein: Taste Interactions
6.5 Minor Food Components: Aroma Interactions
6.5.1 Melanoidin: Flavor Interaction
6.5.2 Hydrogen Ion Effects (pH effects)
6.6 Summary
References
Chapter 7 Off-Flavors and Taints in Foods
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Sensory Aspects of Off-Flavor Testing
7.3 Taints in Foods
7.3.1 Airborne Sources
7.3.2 Waterborne Sources
7.3.3 Disinfectants, Pesticides, and Detergents
7.3.4 Packaging Sources
7.4 Off-flavors Due to Genetics or Diet
7.4.1 Genetics
7.4.2 Diet
7.5 Off-Flavors Due to Chemical Changes in the Food
7.5.1 Lipid Oxidation
7.5.2 Nonenzymatic Browning
7.5.3 Photo-Induced Off-Flavors
7.5.4 Enzymatic Flavor Changes
7.6 Microbial Off-Flavors
7.7 Summary
References
PART II Flavor Technology
Chapter 8 Flavoring Materials
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Definitions
8.1.1.1 Flavoring
8.1.1.2 Natural Flavoring
8.1.1.3 Artificial Flavoring
8.2 Natural Flavoring Materials (Plant Sources)
8.2.1 Herbs and Spices
8.2.1.1 Definitions and Markets
8.2.1.2 Historical Associations
8.2.1.3 Classification of Herbs and Spices
8.2.1.4 Flavor Character of Herbs
8.2.1.5 Preparation of Herbs for Market
8.2.1.6 Introduction to Spices
8.2.2 Derivatives of Spices
8.2.2.1 Essential Oils (Distillation)
8.2.2.2 Oleoresins (Solvent Extraction)
8.2.2.3 Expressed "Essential" Oils (Citrus Oi1s)
8.2.2.4 Mint Oils
8.2.2.5 Fruit, Fruit Juices, and Concentrates
8.2.2.6 Vanilla
8.2.2.7 Cocoa, Coffee, and Tea Flavorings
8.2.2.8 Aromatic Vegetables
References
Chapter 9 Flavoring Materials Made by Processing
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Natural Products Made by Roasting: Cocoa/Chocolate
9.2.1 Production of Cocoa Powder
9.2.2 The Dutch Process
9.2.3 Chocolate
9.3 Process Flavors: Meat-Like Flavors
9.3.1 The Evolution of Process Meat-Like Flavorings
9.3.2 The Creation of Process Flavorings
9.3.2.1 Reaction System Composition
9.3.2.2 Reaction Conditions
9.3.2.3 Final Flavor
9.3.3 Hydrolyzed Vegetable Proteins (HVP)
9.3.4 Autolyzed Yeast Extracts (AYE)
9.4 Enzymaticaly Derived Flavorings
9.4.1 Introduction
9.4.2 Properties of Enzyme Catalyzed Reactions
9.4.3 Enzyme Modified Butter/Butter Oil
9.4.4 Enzyme-Modified Cheese (EMC)
9.4.4.1 Enzymes Used
9.4.4.2 General Processes Employed
9.4.5 Further Processed EM Dairy Products
9.5 Flavors Made by Fermentation
9.5.1 Yeasts
9.5.2 Vinegar/ Acetic Acid
9.5.3 Dried Inactive Yeast Powder
9.6 Flavors Made by Pyrolysis: Smoke Flavors
9.6.1 The Smoking of Foods
9.6.2 Natural Liquid Smoke Flavorings
9.6.3 Pyroligneous Acid
9.6.4 Smoke Condensates
9.7 Biotechnology to Produce Flavoring Materials
9.7.1 Introduction
9.7.2 Production of Natural Flavoring Materials by Enzymatic Action
9.7.2.1 Ester Formation
9.7.2.2 Resolution of Racemic Mixtures
9.7.3 Production of Natural Flavoring Materials by Microbial Action
9.7.3.1 Fermentation to Produce Flavoring Materials
9.7.3.2 Bioconversions Via Microorganisms
9.7.3.3 Resolution of Racemic Mixtures
9.7.4 Economics of Biotechnology
References
Chapter 10 Artificial Flavoring Materials
10.1 Artificial Flavorings
10.2 Synthetic Flavoring Materials
10.2.1 Introduction
10.2.2 Consumer Attitudes Toward Synthetic Chemicals
10.3 Classification of Aroma Compounds by Molecular Structure
10.4 Sensory Threshold Values
10.5 Sensory Characters of Odor Compounds
10.5.1 Hydrocarbons
10.5.2 Carboxylic Acids
10.5.3 Acetals
10.5.4 Alcohols
10.5.5.1 Aldehydes
10.5.5.2 Ketones
10.5.6 Esters
10.5.7 Ethers
10.5.8 Heterocyclic Compounds
10.5.9 Lactones
10.5.10 Nitrogen-Containing Compounds
10.5.10.1 Amines
10.5.10.2 Amides
10.5.10.3 Imines
10.5.10.4 Amino Acids
10.5.10.5 Isothiocyanates
10.5.11 Phenols
10.5.12 Sulfur-Containing Compounds
10.6 Nomenclature of Organic Chemicals
References
Chapter Il Flavor Potentiators
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Chemical Properties of L-Amino acids and 5'-Nucleotides
11.2.1 Structures
11.2.2 Stability
11.3 Sensory Properties of MSG and 5'-Nucleotides
11.3.1 Influence of MSG and 5'-Nucleotides on Taste
11.3.2 Influence of MSG and 5'-Nucleotides on Aroma
11.3.3 Synergism Between MSG and the 5'-Nucleotides
11.4 Traditional Flavor Potentiators in Foods
11.4.1 MSG and 5'-Nucleotides in Foods
11.4.1.1 Yeast Extracts
11.4.1.1.2 Hydrolyzed Vegetable Proteins (HVP)
11.4.2 MSG and 5'-Nucleotides Added to Foods
11.4.3 Sources of MSG and 5'-Nucleotides
11.4.4 Table Salt as a Flavor Potentiator
11.5 Toxicity of MSG and 5'-Nucleotides
11.5.1 Monosodium Glutamate
11.5.2 5'-Nucleotides
11.6 Other Potentiators
11.6.1 Beefy Meaty Peptide
11.6.2 Umami Tasting Glutamate Conjugates
11.6.3 Alapyridaine
11.6.4 Sweetness Potentiators
11.6.4.1 Maltol and Ethyl Maltol
11.6.4.2 Cyclic Enolones
11.6.5 Other Potentiators
References
Chapter 12 Flavorists and Flavor Creation
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Flavorist
12.2.1 Selection of Individuals to Become Flavorists
12.2.2 Training of Flavorists
12.3 Working Environment
12.4 Flavor Creation
12.4.1 Imitation Flavorings
12.4.2 Blending of Seasonings (Culinary Products)
12.5 Sensory Assessment
12.5.1 Sample Evaluation
12.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 13 Flavor Production
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Liquid Flavorings
13.3 Emulsions
13.3.1 Beverage Emulsions
13.3.2 Baker' s Emulsion
13.4 Dry Flavorings
13.4.1 Extended or Plated Flavors
13.4.2 Inclusion Complexes (Cyclodextrins and Starches)
13.4.2.1 Cyclodextrins
13.4.2.2 Starch
13.4.3 Phase Separation/Coacervation Processes
13.4.4 Dehydration Processes
13.4.4.1 Spray Drying
13.4.4.2 Freeze, Drum, and Tray Drying
13.4.5 Extrusion
13.4.5.1 Traditional Processes and Formulations
13.4.5.2 Modern Extrusion Processes
13.4.5.3 Shear Form Process
13.5 Controlled Release
13.6 Summary
References
Chapter 14 Flavor Applications
14.1 Introduction
14.2 The People
14.3 The Laboratory
14.4 Specific Flavoring Applications
14.4.1 Culinary and Meat Products
14.4.1.1 Soups and Stocks
14.4.1.2 Sauces, Seasonings, and Marinades
14.4.1.3 Meat Products
14.4.2 Baked Goods and Bakery Products
14.4.2.1 Problems in Flavoring Baked Goods
14.4.2.2 Flavoring Baked Goods
14.4.2.3 Heat Resistant Flavorings
14.4.3 Snack Foods
14.4.3.1 Problems in Flavoring Snack Foods
14.4.3.2 Snack Flavorings
14.4.3.3 Flavoring Materials
14.4.3.4 Means of Applying Flavorings
14.4.4 Sugar-Based Confectionery Products and Chewing Gum
14.4.4.1 Hard Candies
14.4.4.2 Caramels (Toffees)
14.4 .4.3 Pressed Tablets
14.4.4.4 Starch-Deposited Chews
14.4.4.5 Chewing Gum
14.4.5 Dairy Products
14.4.5.1 Flavored Milks
14.4.5.2 Flavored Yogurts
14.4.5.3 Flavored Dairy Desserts
14.4.6 Soft Drinks
14.4.6.1 Introduction
14.4.6.2 Carbonated Beverages
14.5 Summary
References
Chapter 15 Flavor Legislation and Religious Dietary Rules
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Legislation Limiting the Use of Flavor Compounds
15.2.1 U .S. Flavor-Related Legislation
15.3 Religious Dietary Rules
15.3.1 Kosher Dietary Laws
15.3.2 Halal Rules
15.4 Labeling of Food Flavorings
15.4.1 Bulk Labeling Requirements
15.4.2 Labeling for the Consumer
15.5 Summary
References
Chapter 16 Quality Control
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Analytical Tests
16.2.1 Overview of Physicochemical Tests
16.2.1.1 Natural Plant Materials
16.2.1.2 Essential Oils
16.2.1.3 0leoresins
16.2.1.4 Plated or Dispersed Spices
16.2.1.5 Synthetic Chemicals
16.2.1.6 Finished Flavorings
16.2.1.7 Vanilla Extract
16.2.1.8 Fruit-Based Products
16.2.2 Generally Used Analytical Testing Methods
16.2.2.1 Density/Specific Gravity
16.2.2.2 Refractive Index
16.2.2.3 Optical Rotation
16.2.2.4 Alcohol Content
16.2.2.5 Residual Solvent
16.2.2.6 Particle Size of Emulsions
16.2.2.7 Volatile Oil
16.2.2.8 Surface Oil
16.2.2.9 Moisture Content
16.2.2.10 Gas Chromatography
16.2.2.11 Spectroscopic Analysis
16.2.2.12 Microbiological Analysis
16.2.2.13 Electronic Noses
16.3 Sensory Analysis
16.3.1 Incoming Raw Ingredients
16.3.2 Finished Flavors
16.3.2.1 Sensory Evaluation
16.3.2.2 Changes in Finished Flavors with Age
16.3.2.3 Sample Rejection
16.3.3 Colorings
16.3.4 Scoville Heat Units
16.3.5 Summary
16.4 Adulteration Testing
16.4.1 Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry
16.4.2 Chiral Compounds
16.4.3 HPLC
16.4.4 Carbon 14 Dating
16.4.5 Stable Isotope Ratio Analysis
16.4.6 Comments on Adulteration
References
Index
+
-